An Introduction to Atmospheric Physics

An Introduction to Atmosheric Physics ......Page 3
Copyright Page ......Page 4
Contents ......Page 5
Preface to Second Edition ......Page 11
Preface to First Edition ......Page 13
CHAPTER I. GRAVITATIONAL EFFECTS ......Page 15
1.1 Fundamental Concepts ......Page 18
1.2 Law of Universal Gravitation ......Page 19
1.3 Newton's Laws of Motion ......Page 20
1.4 The Earth's Gravitational Field ......Page 21
1.5 The Force of Gravity ......Page 22
1.6 Geopotential ......Page 24
1.7 Satellite Orbits ......Page 25
1.8 Hydrostatic Equation ......Page 26
1.9 Distribution of Sea Level Pressure ......Page 30
1.10 Gravitational Tides ......Page 32
List of Symbols ......Page 35
Solutions ......Page 36
General References ......Page 40
2.1 Molecular Behavior of Gases ......Page 41
2.2 Composition of Air ......Page 42
2.3 Elementary Kinetic Theory ......Page 44
2.4 Equation of State of an Ideal Gas ......Page 46
2.5 The Velocity Distribution of Molecules ......Page 49
2.6 The Atmosphere in Equilibrium ......Page 53
2.7 Conservation of Mass ......Page 55
2.8 Conservation of Energy ......Page 56
2.9 First Law of Thermodynamics ......Page 58
2.10 Equipartition of Energy ......Page 60
2.11 Specific Heat ......Page 61
2.12 Entropy ......Page 63
2.13 Isentropic Processes and Potential Temperature ......Page 64
2.14 Static Stability ......Page 66
2.15 Thermodynamic Probability and Entropy ......Page 68
2.16 Second Law of Thermodynamics and Transfer Processes ......Page 73
2.17 Real Gases and Changes of Phase ......Page 81
2.18 ClausiusClapeyron Equation ......Page 85
2.19 The Moist Atmosphere ......Page 86
2.20 Saturation Adiabatic Processes ......Page 89
2.21 Distribution of Temperature and Water Vapor ......Page 93
List of Symbols ......Page 98
Problems ......Page 100
Solutions ......Page 102
General References ......Page 105
3.1 Intermolecular Force and Surface Tension ......Page 106
3.2 Equilibrium Vapor Pressure over a Curved Surface ......Page 108
3.4 Condensation Nuclei and the Equilibrium Vapor Pressure over Solutions ......Page 110
3.5 Distribution and Properties of Aerosols ......Page 113
3.6 Growth of Droplets by Condensation ......Page 116
3.7 Growth of Droplets by Collision and Coalescence ......Page 120
3.8 Supercooling of Droplets ......Page 125
3.9 Ice Nuclei ......Page 126
3.10 Equilibrium Vapor Pressures over Ice and Water ......Page 127
3.11 Growth of Ice Particles ......Page 129
3.12 Structure of Ice Crystals ......Page 131
3.13 Precipitation ......Page 133
3.14 Artificial Cloud Modification ......Page 141
3.15 Elementary Principles of Electricity ......Page 144
3.16 Origin and Distribution of Ions ......Page 146
3.17 Conductivity ......Page 148
3.18 Charge Generation and Separation in Clouds ......Page 151
3.19 The Lightning Discharge ......Page 155
3.20 The Mean Electric Field ......Page 157
List of Symbols ......Page 159
Problems ......Page 160
Solutions ......Page 161
General References ......Page 164
4.1 Atmospheric Forces ......Page 165
4.2 The Coriolis Force ......Page 167
4.3 The Equations of Motion ......Page 170
4.4 Applications of the Horizontal Equations of Motion ......Page 173
4.5 The Equations of Motion on a Constant Pressure Surface ......Page 182
4.6 Variation with Height of the Geostrophic Wind ......Page 184
4.7 The Circulation Theorems ......Page 186
4.8 The Vorticity Equation ......Page 190
4.9 Potential Vorticity and Its Conservation ......Page 192
4.10 Rossby Waves ......Page 196
4.11 Frictionally Driven Secondary Circulation ......Page 198
4.12 Vertical Convection ......Page 202
4.13 Waves on an Interface ......Page 204
4.14 Acoustic-Gravity Waves ......Page 208
List of Symbols ......Page 213
Problems ......Page 214
Solutions ......Page 216
General References ......Page 220
Part I: Principles of Radiative Transfer ......Page 221
5.1 Definition and Concepts ......Page 222
5.2 Absorption and Emission of Radiation ......Page 224
5.3 Theory of Black-Body Radiation ......Page 227
5.4 Characteristics of Black-Body Radiation ......Page 229
5.5 The Line Spectrum ......Page 231
5.6 The Sun ......Page 233
5.7 Determination of the Solar Constant ......Page 237
5.8 Short- and Long-Wave Radiation ......Page 239
5.9 Radiation Measurements from Satellites ......Page 240
5.10 Distribution of Solar Energy Intercepted by the Earth ......Page 244
5.11 Absorption ......Page 245
5.12 The "Atmosphere Effect" ......Page 246
5.13 Transfer of Radiation between Two Parallel Surfaces ......Page 247
5.14 Transfer of Long-Wave Radiation in a Plane Stratified Atmosphere ......Page 248
5.15 Experimental Determination of Flux Emissivity ......Page 253
5.16 Divergence of Net Radiation ......Page 255
5.17 Direct Measurement of Flux Divergence ......Page 256
5.18 Dissociation of Oxygen ......Page 259
5.19 Effects of Trace Gases on Stratospheric Ozone ......Page 264
5.20 Photoionization ......Page 267
List of Symbols ......Page 269
Problems ......Page 270
Solutions ......Page 271
General References ......Page 274
6.1 Energy Transfer near the Earth's Surface ......Page 275
6.2 Heat Conduction into the Earth ......Page 276
6.3 Turbulence ......Page 278
6.4 Fluxes of Heat, Water Vapor, and Momentum ......Page 280
6.5 The Mixing Length Concept and the Eddy Transfer Coefficients ......Page 283
6.6 Transfer by Turbulence in the Adiabatic Atmosphere ......Page 286
6.7 Transfer by Turbulence in the Diabatic Atmosphere ......Page 289
6.8 The Planetary Boundary Layer ......Page 297
6.9 Practical Determination of the Fluxes near the Surface ......Page 301
6.10 Vertical Aerosol Distribution ......Page 306
6.11 Nocturnal Cooling ......Page 307
6.12 Fog Formation ......Page 309
6.13 Air Modification ......Page 313
6.14 Global Summary of Energy Transfer ......Page 319
6.15 Effects of Increasing Concentration of CO2 ......Page 322
List of Symbols ......Page 324
Problems ......Page 326
Solutions ......Page 328
General References ......Page 333
7.1 Nature of Waves ......Page 335
7.2 Phase Speed ......Page 337
7.3 Electromagnetic Waves ......Page 340
7.4 Dispersion and Group Velocity ......Page 344
7.5 The Physical Concept ......Page 345
7.6 Complex Index of Refraction ......Page 347
7.7 Radiation Emitted by an Oscillating Dipole ......Page 351
7.8 Size Dependence ......Page 354
7.9 Diffraction ......Page 355
7.10 Refraction ......Page 359
Part Ill: Natural Signal Phenomena ......Page 363
7.11 Visibility ......Page 364
7.12 Airglow ......Page 366
7.13 Refraction of Light by Air ......Page 367
7.14 Refraction by Ice Crystals ......Page 372
7.15 Refraction by Water Drops ......Page 374
7.16 Naturally Occurring Atmospheric Radio Waves ......Page 376
7.17 Refraction of Sound Waves ......Page 378
Part IV: Remote Sensing ......Page 382
7.18 Absorption Techniques ......Page 385
7.19 Scattering Techniques ......Page 387
7.20 Refraction Techniques ......Page 396
7.21 EmissionAbsorption Techniques ......Page 398
List of Symbols ......Page 406
Problems ......Page 408
Solutions ......Page 409
General References ......Page 411
A. Partial Differentiation ......Page 413
B. Elementary Vector Operation ......Page 414
C. Taylor Series ......Page 417
D. The Total Differential ......Page 418
F. Gauss' Theorem ......Page 419
G. Stokes' Theorem ......Page 421
H. The Potential Function ......Page 422
I. Solid Angle ......Page 423
A. Units and Dimensions ......Page 425
B. Significant Figures ......Page 426
D. Table of Physical Constants ......Page 427
E. Standard Atmospheres ......Page 429
Bibliography ......Page 431
Index ......Page 435