An Evaluation of the Role of Microbiological Criteria for Foods and Food Ingredients

An Evaluation of the Role of Microbiological Criteria for Foods and Food Ingredients......Page 2
Copyright......Page 3
Foreword......Page 6
Acknowledgments......Page 8
Contents......Page 10
Executive Summary......Page 18
INTRODUCTION......Page 19
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS......Page 20
Dairy Products......Page 23
Fish, Molluscs, and Crustaceans......Page 24
Processed Animal Products......Page 25
Fruit Beverages......Page 26
Fats and Oils......Page 27
Formulated Foods......Page 28
Bottled Water, Processing Water, and Ice......Page 29
EXPANSION OF THE HACCP SYSTEM IN FOOD PROTECTION PROGRAMS......Page 30
PLANS OF ACTION......Page 31
INTRODUCTION (CHAPTER 1)......Page 32
DEFINITIONS, PURPOSES, AND NEEDS FOR MICROBIOLOGICAL CRITERIA (CHAPTER 2)......Page 33
Clostridium botulinum......Page 34
Viruses......Page 35
Pathogenic Escherichia coli (PEC)......Page 36
Bacillus cereus......Page 37
Campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni......Page 38
Aerobic Plate Count......Page 39
Thermophilic Spore Count......Page 40
Ethanol......Page 41
Escherichia coli......Page 42
Thermonuclease Test (TNase)......Page 43
CONSIDERATION OF DECISION (ACTION) TO BE TAKEN WHEN A CRITERION (LIMIT) IS EXCEEDED (CHAPTER 7)......Page 44
Dairy Products......Page 45
Processed Meats......Page 47
Raw (Eviscerated, Ready-To-Cook) Poultry......Page 48
Processed Poultry Products......Page 49
Fish, Molluscs, and Crustaceans......Page 50
Fruit Beverages......Page 52
Peanut Butter......Page 53
Spices......Page 54
Miscellaneous Additives......Page 55
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE HACCP SYSTEM IN FOOD PROTECTION SYSTEMS (CHAPTER 10)......Page 56
PLANS OF ACTION FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF THE HACCP SYSTEM AND OF MICROBIOLOGICAL CRITERIA (CHAPTER 11)......Page 57
Historical Aspects......Page 58
Spoilage, Pathogenic, and Useful Microorganisms......Page 59
Food as a Selective Environment......Page 60
Microflora of Processed Foods......Page 61
CONTROL OF MICROORGANISMS IN FOODS......Page 63
Inspection of Facilities and Operations......Page 65
The Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) System......Page 67
THE CURRENT ROLE OF CRITERIA IN MICROBIOLOGICAL CONTROL IN FOODS......Page 68
CONSIDERATIONS IN ESTABLISHING CRITERIA......Page 70
REFERENCES......Page 71
Components of a Microbiological Criterion......Page 72
Guideline......Page 73
PURPOSES......Page 74
NEED FOR ESTABLISHMENT......Page 75
Guidelines......Page 76
RELATIONSHIP TO CODEX......Page 77
ATTRIBUTES OF QUALITY AMENABLE TO MEASUREMENT BY MICROBIOLOGICAL CRITERIA......Page 78
REFERENCES......Page 81
3 Selection of Foods for Criteria Related to Safety......Page 82
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL EXPERIENCE......Page 83
OPPORTUNITIES FOR GROWTH......Page 84
PROCESSING CONDITIONS......Page 86
REFERENCES......Page 87
INTRODUCTION......Page 89
PATHOGENS......Page 90
Clostridium botulinum......Page 95
Shigella......Page 96
Vibrio cholerae......Page 97
Brucella abortus, Brucella melitensis, Brucella suis, and Mycobacterium bovis......Page 98
Viruses......Page 99
Fish and Shellfish Toxins......Page 100
Mycotoxins......Page 101
Salmonella......Page 102
Streptococcus pyogenes (Lancefield Group A, beta hemolytic)......Page 104
Staphylococcus aureus......Page 105
Clostridium perfringens......Page 106
Bacillus cereus......Page 107
Coxiella burnetii......Page 108
Histamine Poisoning......Page 109
Yersinia enterocolitica......Page 110
Campylobacter......Page 111
Trichinella spiralis......Page 112
REFERENCES......Page 113
5 Selection of Indicator Organisms and Agents as Components of Microbiological Criteria......Page 121
Aerobic Plate Count......Page 122
Thermoduric, Psychrotrophic, Thermophilic, Proteolytic, and Lipolytic Counts......Page 124
Direct Microscopic Count......Page 125
Microscopic Mold Counts......Page 126
Thermophilic Spore Count......Page 127
Organoleptic Examination......Page 128
pH......Page 130
Trimethylamine and Total Volatile Nitrogen......Page 133
Indole......Page 134
Diacetyl......Page 135
Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate Test......Page 136
Staphylococci......Page 137
Escherichia coli......Page 138
Fecal Coliforms......Page 139
Enterococci......Page 140
Coliform Bacteria......Page 141
Enterobacteriaceae......Page 142
Aflatoxin Detection by Ultraviolet Light......Page 143
REFERENCES......Page 144
6 Consideration of Sampling Associated With a Criterion......Page 149
2-CLASS ATTRIBUTES SAMPLING PLANS......Page 151
VARIABLES SAMPLING PLANS......Page 153
OPERATING CHARACTERISTIC CURVES......Page 154
ESTABLISHING LIMITS......Page 157
RESAMPLING......Page 158
APPLICATIONS......Page 159
REFERENCES......Page 160
7 Consideration of Decision (Action) to be Taken When a Criterion (Limit) is Exceeded......Page 162
Evidence of Existence of a Direct Health Hazard......Page 163
Indications That a Product Was Not Produced Under Conditions Assuring Safety......Page 165
Evidence That a Critical Control Point Is Not Under Control......Page 166
REFERENCES......Page 167
Early Programs in the United States......Page 169
Current Levels of Concern and Application......Page 170
Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Program......Page 171
European Economic Community......Page 173
Canadian Microbiological Standards for Foods......Page 174
Food and Drug Administration (FDA)......Page 175
Food Defect Action Levels......Page 176
Efforts for Microbiological Standards......Page 180
Cooperative Programs......Page 181
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)......Page 183
Dry Milk Products......Page 184
Meat and Poultry Products......Page 185
History......Page 191
Current Cooperative Agreements......Page 192
U.S. Army Natick Research and Development Center......Page 193
State Level......Page 195
City-County (Local) Level......Page 196
INDUSTRY......Page 197
REFERENCES......Page 198
INTRODUCTION......Page 201
Introduction......Page 202
Sensitivity of Products Relative to Safety......Page 203
Dried Milk......Page 204
Cheese......Page 207
Fluid Milk......Page 209
Sensitivity of Products Relative to Safety and Quality......Page 210
Need for Microbiological Criteria......Page 214
References......Page 215
Introduction......Page 216
Raw Ground Beef......Page 217
Perishable Raw Salted and Salted Cured Meats......Page 218
Shelf-Stable Raw Salted and Salted Cured Meats......Page 220
Cooked Uncured Meats......Page 221
Cooked Cured Meats......Page 223
Fermented Sausages......Page 228
Shelf-Stable Canned Cured Meats......Page 230
Perishable Canned Cured Meats......Page 231
Dried Meats......Page 232
Raw Ground Beef......Page 233
Cooked Cured Meats......Page 234
Shelf-Stable Canned Cured Meats......Page 235
Where Criteria Should Be Applied......Page 236
References......Page 237
Sensitivity of Products Relative to Safety and Quality......Page 238
Salmonella......Page 241
Clostridium perfringens......Page 243
Assessment of Information Necessary for Establishment of a Criterion if One Seems To Be Indicated......Page 244
References......Page 245
Sensitivity of Products Relative to Safety and Quality......Page 247
Tray-Pack Product......Page 250
Perishable Cooked Further-Processed Products: Wieners, Ham, Boneless Breast......Page 251
Need for Microbiological Criteria......Page 253
Where Criteria Should Be Applied......Page 254
References......Page 255
Shell Eggs......Page 256
Egg Products......Page 258
The Salmonella Standard......Page 259
Probabilities Associated with the \"Salmonella Standard\"......Page 262
References......Page 265
Safety......Page 266
Need for Microbiological Criteria......Page 270
Assessment of Information Necessary for Establishment of a Criterion if One Seems To Be Indicated......Page 271
References......Page 272
Sensitivity of Products Relative to Safety and Quality......Page 274
Nonsterile, Shelf-Stable Products......Page 275
Where Criteria Should Be Applied......Page 276
References......Page 277
I. FRUIT BEVERAGES......Page 278
Need for Microbiological Criteria......Page 279
References......Page 280
Safety......Page 281
Quality......Page 282
Need for Microbiological Criteria......Page 283
Where Criteria Should Be Applied......Page 284
K. ACID CANNED FOODS......Page 285
Need for Microbiological Criteria......Page 286
L. WATER ACTIVITY-CONTROLLED CANNED FOODS......Page 287
Where Criteria Should Be Applied......Page 288
Grains and Milled Grain Products......Page 289
Pastries......Page 291
Assessment of Information Necessary for Establishment of a Criterion if One Seems To Be Indicated......Page 292
References......Page 293
Sensitivity of Products Relative to Safety and Quality......Page 294
Mayonnaise and Salad Dressings......Page 295
Peanut Butter......Page 297
Mayonnaise and Salad Dressings......Page 298
References......Page 299
Sugar......Page 300
Confectionery......Page 301
Cocoa and Chocolate......Page 302
References......Page 303
Sensitivity of Products Relative to Safety and Quality......Page 304
References......Page 305
Sensitivity of Products Relative to Safety and Quality......Page 306
Sensitivity of Products Relative to Safety and Quality......Page 307
An Example: Ready-to-eat Salads......Page 309
Need for Microbiological Criteria......Page 310
Assessment of Information Necessary for Establishment of a Criterion if One Seems To Be Indicated......Page 311
Sensitivity of Products Relative to Safety and Quality......Page 312
References......Page 313
Gums......Page 314
Need for Microbiological Criteria......Page 315
Sensitivity of Products Relative to Safety and Quality......Page 316
Need for Microbiological Criteria......Page 319
References......Page 320
V. PET FOODS......Page 321
Need for Microbiological Criteria......Page 322
References......Page 323
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF HACCP......Page 325
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH IMPLEMENTATION OF THE HACCP APPROACH......Page 328
THE NEED FOR APPLICATION OF HACCP AT ALL POINTS IN THE FOOD CHAIN......Page 330
REFERENCES......Page 344
IMPLEMENTATION OF HACCP......Page 346
The Food Industry......Page 347
Government Agencies......Page 348
THE PLAN......Page 350
REFERENCES......Page 352
Appendixes......Page 354
Appendix A Summary Responses to Specific Contract Items......Page 356
Heat-Processed Foods......Page 374
Cost/Benefits......Page 375
REFERENCES......Page 380
2. Application of Microbiological Criteria......Page 383
4. General Considerations Concerning Principles for Establishing and Applying Criteria......Page 384
6. Components of a Microbiological Criterion......Page 385
8. Reporting......Page 387
9. Provisions for Reconsideration at Regular Intervals......Page 388
Appendix C International Microbiological Specifications......Page 389
Appendix D Excerpts From the Regulations Pursuant to the Food and Drugs Act, a Statute of the Government of Canada......Page 394
Appendix E Microbiological Criteria for Foods Purchased by the Military......Page 404
Raw Milk: A Continuing Vehicle for the Transmission of Infectious Disease Agents in the United States......Page 412
REFERENCES......Page 415
Contents......Page 416
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 417
II. CONTROL OPTIONS......Page 418
C. Microbiological testing or examination......Page 419
III. HAZARD ANALYSIS CRITICAL CONTROL POINT (HACCP) SYSTEM......Page 420
1. In food processing plants......Page 421
2. In food service establishments......Page 423
1. Determination at food processing plants......Page 424
C. Monitoring......Page 425
1. At food processing plants......Page 426
2. In food service establishments......Page 427
A. Approaches to Hazard Analysis......Page 428
C. Approaches to the Establishment of Monitoring System......Page 430
V. CONCLUSIONS AND PROPOSED STRATEGY......Page 431
VI. RECOMMENDATIONS......Page 433
REFERENCES......Page 434
International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods......Page 437
Index......Page 438