Airglow as an Indicator of Upper Atmospheric Structure and Dynamics

Contents......Page 9
Introduction......Page 14
References......Page 19
1.1 Spectral Structure of the Airglow and Its Role in Atmospheric Research......Page 22
1.2 Extra-Atmospheric Radiation......Page 28
1.2.1 Stellar Photometric Units......Page 30
1.2.2 The Sun, the Moon, and Planets......Page 32
1.2.3 Bright Stars......Page 36
1.2.4 Distribution of the Starlight over the Sky......Page 37
1.2.5 Zodiacal Light......Page 38
1.3.1 Radiation in the 100- to 300-nm Range......Page 39
1.3.2 Radiation in the 20- to 100-nm Range......Page 40
1.3.3 Occurrence of Photoelectrons......Page 41
1.4.1 Geometric Relations for Various Observation Conditions......Page 43
1.4.3 Conditions of Twilight Measurements......Page 55
1.4.4 Limb-Directed Measurements......Page 59
1.4.5 Time Coordinates......Page 65
1.5 Manifestation of the Variations of the Atmospheric Characteristics in the Properties of the Airglow......Page 73
1.6.1 Solar Activity and Its Variations During 11-yr Cycles......Page 74
1.6.2 Cyclic Aperiodic Variations of Solar Activity......Page 86
1.6.3 Long-Term Variations in Solar Activity......Page 97
1.6.4 Solar–Terrestrial Relationships......Page 99
1.6.5 Characteristics of the Geomagnetic Field: Their Variations in Space and Time......Page 112
References......Page 121
2.1 Processes of Excitation and Deactivation of Excited Species......Page 132
2.1.1 Kinetics of Elementary Gaseous-Phase Photochemical Reactions......Page 133
2.1.2 Relaxation Processes......Page 138
2.1.3 Translational Relaxation......Page 139
2.1.5 Vibrational Relaxation......Page 141
2.1.6 Rotational Relaxation......Page 147
2.2.1 Progress in the Studies of Hydroxyl Emission......Page 149
2.2.2 Principal Characteristics of Hydroxyl Emission......Page 151
2.2.3 Probabilities of Rotational–Vibrational Transitions......Page 155
2.2.4 Hydroxyl Emission Intensity......Page 160
2.2.5 Rotational Temperature......Page 161
2.2.6 The Population Distribution over Vibrational Levels......Page 172
2.2.7 Photochemistry......Page 177
2.2.8 Formation of Dissociation Products......Page 181
2.2.9 Recombination of Atomic Oxygen......Page 185
2.3.1 Sodium Emission: Photochemical Excitation......Page 186
2.3.2 Alkali Metals: Resonant Excitation......Page 191
2.4 Molecular Oxygen Emissions......Page 198
2.4.1 Ultraviolet Systems......Page 199
2.4.2 The Atmospheric System......Page 202
2.4.3 The Infrared Atmospheric System......Page 210
2.5 557.7-nm Emission of Atomic Oxygen......Page 215
2.6 The Atomic Oxygen 630-nm Emission......Page 220
2.7 Helium Emission......Page 223
2.8 Atomic Hydrogen Emissions......Page 235
2.9 The Continuum......Page 243
2.10 Nitric Oxide Emissions......Page 250
2.11 Infrared Emissions from Atmospheric Atoms and Molecules......Page 254
References......Page 258
3. Techniques of Investigation of the Airglow......Page 282
3.1 Photometry......Page 283
3.2 Spectrophotometric Equipment......Page 285
3.2.1 Diffraction Spectrographs......Page 286
3.2.2 Diffraction Spectrophotometers......Page 295
3.2.3 Photometers with Light Filters......Page 296
3.2.4 Photographic and Photoelectric Interferometers......Page 305
3.3 Radiation Detectors......Page 314
3.3.1 Photography......Page 315
3.3.2 Photomultipliers......Page 320
3.3.3 Image Converter Tubes......Page 325
3.3.4 Photoelectric Charge-Coupled Devices......Page 330
3.4.1 Cooling with Solid Carbonic Acid......Page 340
3.4.2 Thermoelectric Cooling......Page 341
3.5.1 Measurements at Given Directions......Page 342
3.5.2 Optical Recording of Wave Processes in the Upper Atmosphere......Page 344
3.5.4 Scanning of a Spectrum......Page 349
3.5.5 Use of Fiber Glass Tubes......Page 350
3.5.6 Airborne Measurements......Page 352
3.5.7 Rocket Measurements......Page 353
3.5.8 Satellite Measurements......Page 355
3.5.9 Formation of Artificial Luminous Clouds......Page 360
3.6.1 Spectrophotometry of Photographic Images of Spectra......Page 363
3.6.3 Photographic Spectrophotometry of Interferograms......Page 366
3.6.4 Photoelectric Spectrophotometry of Interferograms......Page 373
3.6.5 Spectral Analysis of Time Series......Page 378
3.6.6 Spectral Characteristics of IGW Trains Detected in the Upper Atmosphere......Page 386
3.7.1 Calibration of the Characteristics of Spectrophotometric Instruments......Page 395
3.7.2 Artificial Reference Light Sources......Page 403
3.7.3 Natural Reference Radiation Sources......Page 404
3.8.1 Photographic Measurements......Page 405
3.8.2 Photoelectric Measurements......Page 406
3.8.3 Interferometric Measurements......Page 407
3.8.5 Statistical Processing Errors......Page 411
References......Page 414
4. Regular Variations of the Airglow in the Mesopause and Thermosphere......Page 425
4.1 Model of Hydroxyl Emission......Page 427
4.1.2 Determination of the Characteristics of OH Emission......Page 428
4.1.3 Empirical Model of Variations of Hydroxyl Emission Characteristics......Page 433
4.2 Model of the Sodium Emission......Page 461
4.3.1 Model of the Atmospheric System of Molecular Oxygen......Page 477
4.4 Model of the 557.7-nm Atomic Oxygen Emission......Page 485
4.5 Model of the 630-nm Atomic Oxygen Emission......Page 521
References......Page 542
5.1 Internal Gravity Waves......Page 562
5.1.1 Detection of IGWs in the Atmosphere......Page 563
5.1.2 Modulation of Emission Characteristics by IGWs Propagating Through the Emission Layer......Page 567
5.1.3 Choice of Measurable Parameters......Page 571
5.1.4 Observation Conditions......Page 572
5.1.5 Determination of IGW Characteristics by the Variations of the OH Rotational Temperature......Page 573
5.1.6 Localization of IGW Sources in the Troposphere......Page 578
5.1.7 The Nature of IGW Sources......Page 584
5.1.8 Seasonal Variability of the Spectral Distribution of IGW Amplitudes......Page 587
5.1.9 Proportion Between the Principal Mechanisms of Hydroxyl Emission Excitation in the Mesopause......Page 592
5.1.10 IGW-Induced Variations of the Doppler Temperature and Intensity of the 557.7-nm Emission......Page 596
5.1.11 Variations of the Altitude of Hydroxyl Emission Layers with Various Vibrational Excitation......Page 600
5.1.12 Behavior of the Mesopause Temperature During the Propagation of IGWs in Summer and Winter......Page 602
5.2.1 Orographic Disturbances in the Upper Atmosphere......Page 605
5.2.2 Measurements......Page 609
5.2.3 Basic Theoretical Suppositions......Page 618
5.2.4 Analysis of the Input Parameters......Page 621
5.2.5 Calculation of the Energy Flux Spatial Distribution......Page 624
5.2.6 Numerical Estimates of the Energy Flux Spatial Distribution......Page 628
5.2.7 Effect of Orographic Disturbances on the Energetics and Structure of the Upper Atmosphere......Page 630
5.3 Planetary Waves......Page 636
5.4 Noctilucent Clouds......Page 640
5.5 Spotty Structure of the Airglow Intensity......Page 650
5.5.1 Recording of the Wave and Spotty Irregularities of the Airglow......Page 651
5.6 Winds......Page 654
5.6.1 Relation of the Variations of Hydroxyl Airglow Characteristics to the Tropospheric Wind......Page 655
5.6.2 Wind Parameters Derived from Optical Measurements......Page 657
References......Page 658
6. Climatic Changes in the Upper Atmosphere......Page 671
6.1 The Temperature Trend in the Middle Atmosphere......Page 674
6.1.1 Long-Term Yearly Average Temperature Trends......Page 675
6.1.2 Seasonal Behavior of Long-Term Temperature Trends for the Middle Atmosphere......Page 687
6.1.3 Latitudinal Variations of the Temperature Trend......Page 697
6.2 Temperature Trend in the Thermosphere......Page 705
6.3.1 Long-Term Variations in Concentration of Neutral and Ionized Atmospheric Constituents......Page 706
6.3.2 Estimation of the Long-Term Variations of the Density of the Upper Atmosphere by the Evolution of the Parameters of Satellite Orbits......Page 709
6.4 Long-Term Subsidence of the Middle and Upper Atmosphere......Page 710
References......Page 713
7.1 Ozone in the Mesopause Region......Page 721
7.2 Atomic Oxygen......Page 728
7.2.2 Photochemical Basis of the Model......Page 730
7.2.3 Empirical Regularities of 557.7-nm Emission Variations......Page 731
7.2.4 Model of Variations of the Atomic Oxygen Density in the Mesopause and Lower Thermosphere......Page 732
7.3 Atomic Hydrogen......Page 736
7.4 Temperature of the Middle Atmosphere......Page 738
References......Page 740
D......Page 745
I......Page 746
R......Page 747
T......Page 748
Z......Page 749