Agrochemicals Detection, Treatment and Remediation: Pesticides and Chemical Fertilizers

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Agrochemicals Detection, Treatment and Remediation: Pesticides and Chemical Fertilizers
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Contents
List of contributors
About the editor
	Professional experience
	Academic honors
	Visiting assignments in various universities—widely traveled
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 Biodegradation of pesticides by adapted fungi. Potential use on biopurification systems?
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Material and methods
		1.2.1 Chemicals
		1.2.2 Microorganisms
		1.2.3 Selection and identification of fungal strains
		1.2.4 Experimental setup
		1.2.5 Analysis by scanning electron microscopy
		1.2.6 Pesticide residue analysis
			1.2.6.1 Pesticide extraction
			1.2.6.2 HPLC–UV analysis
			1.2.6.3 Liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry analysis
		1.2.7 Statistical analysis
	1.3 Results and discussion
		1.3.1 Pesticide biodegradation by fungi—comparing efficiencies. Which was the best?
		1.3.2 Cork as attenuator or immobilizing factor?
		1.3.3 Elucidating the role of fungi on pesticide biodegradation
	1.4 Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
2 Influence of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides on soil health and soil microbiology
	2.1 Introduction
		2.1.1 Synthetic or inorganic fertilizers
			2.1.1.1 Synthetic fertilizers of nitrogen
			2.1.1.2 Synthetic fertilizers of phosphate
			2.1.1.3 Synthetic fertilizers of potassium
		2.1.2 Pesticides
		2.1.3 Soil health
		2.1.4 Soil microbiology
	2.2 Impact of synthetic fertilizer
		2.2.1 Soil health
		2.2.2 Soil microbiology
	2.3 Impact of pesticides
		2.3.1 Soil health
		2.3.2 Soil microbiology
	2.4 Concluding remarks and future directions
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
3 Phytotoxicity, environmental and health hazards of herbicides: challenges and ways forward
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Use of herbicides: global trends
	3.3 Herbicide: boon or bane
		3.3.1 Herbicide: a popular tool for weed management in field crops
		3.3.2 Using herbicide: toxic consequences of the Green Revolution
	3.4 Herbicide-induced phytotoxicity
		3.4.1 Seed germination
		3.4.2 Plant growth
		3.4.3 Physiological disorders
		3.4.4 Oxidative stress
		3.4.5 Crop quality reduction
	3.5 Herbicide use and environmental pollution
		3.5.1 Water pollution
		3.5.2 Soil pollution
	3.6 Herbicide toxicity and human health: the ultimate threat
	3.7 Bioherbicide: effective alternative and way forward to a sustainable environment
		3.7.1 Plant derivatives
		3.7.2 Microbial bioherbicides
	3.8 Conclusion and future perspectives
	Acknowledgment
	References
	Further reading
4 Impacts of agrochemicals on soil microbiology and food quality
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Impacts of agrochemicals on climate change
	4.3 Impact of agrochemicals on the environment
	4.4 Impact of agrochemicals on the soil or microbes/microbial community
	4.5 Effect of agrochemicals on food
	4.6 Conclusion or future prospective
	References
5 Emerging agrochemicals contaminants: current status, challenges, and technological solutions
	5.1 Introduction: emerging environmental contaminants
	5.2 Emerging agrochemicals: current status in water resources
	5.3 Health effects
	5.4 Detection methodologies
	5.5 Removal technologies: status and challenges
	5.6 Nanomaterials in tackling emerging agrochemicals
	5.7 Future outlook
	References
6 Chemical fertilizers and pesticides: role in groundwater contamination
	6.1 Agrochemicals
	6.2 Types of agrochemicals
		6.2.1 Fertilizers
		6.2.2 Pesticides
	6.3 Need of agrochemicals
	6.4 Effects of agrochemicals
		6.4.1 On human health
		6.4.2 On ecological systems
		6.4.3 On groundwater resources
	6.5 Factors influencing agrochemical contamination of water resources
		6.5.1 Quantity of applied agrochemical(s)
		6.5.2 Weather and climatic factors
		6.5.3 Quality of agrochemicals applied
		6.5.4 Nature of agrochemicals
		6.5.5 Route of exposure of agrochemicals
	6.6 Alternative options of agrochemicals
		6.6.1 Effective training to the farmers for the sustainable use of fertilizers and pesticides
		6.6.2 Integrated pest management
		6.6.3 Training and certification program for awareness about the side effects of agrochemicals
		6.6.4 Application of biological agents in agriculture as biopesticides and biofertilizers
		6.6.5 Composting: vermicompost, green manures, etc
		6.6.6 Banned and restricted pesticides
	6.7 Suggested framework for the management of agrochemicals
		6.7.1 For pesticides
		6.7.2 For fertilizers
	6.8 Conclusion
	References
7 Impact of agrochemicals on soil health
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Current use of agrochemicals in agriculture
	7.3 Fate and toxicity of agrochemicals in soil
	7.4 Effects on soil biota and soil microflora
		7.4.1 Effect on soil enzymatic activity
		7.4.2 Effect on nutrient cycling microbial communities
	7.5 A consequence of agrochemicals on soil health
	7.6 Conclusion
	References
8 Sorption and desorption of agro-pesticides in soils
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Occurrence of agro-pesticides in soils
	8.3 Factors affecting fate and mobility of agro-pesticides in soils
		8.3.1 Effect of clay types and contents
		8.3.2 Effect of organic matter content
		8.3.3 Effect of pH
	8.4 Conclusion
	References
9 Bioaugmentation an effective strategy to improve the performance of biobeds: a review
	9.1 Pesticide biopurification systems (biobeds)—a feasible solution for minimizing the risk of point-source contamination b...
	9.2 How to ameliorate depuration performance in a biobed?
		9.2.1 Lignocellulosic substrates
		9.2.2 Soil
		9.2.3 Humified materials
		9.2.4 Biomixture age
		9.2.5 Biomixture temperature
		9.2.6 Biobed water management
	9.3 Processes responsible for pesticides mitigation in a biopurification systems
		9.3.1 Abiotic processes
		9.3.2 Biotic processes
	9.4 Bioaugmentation
	9.5 Conclusion
	References
10 Lichens as a source and indicator of agrochemicals
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Habit and ecological impact of lichens
	10.3 Lichen as a resource of agrochemicals
	10.4 Growth and multiplication of lichen exposed to agrochemicals
	10.5 Lichen as indicators of agrochemicals
	10.6 Conclusion
	References
11 Biofertilizers as substitute to commercial agrochemicals
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Use of commercial agrochemicals in agriculture and their effect on the environment
	11.3 Mechanisms of plant growth promotion
		11.3.1 Direct interaction
			11.3.1.1 Nitrogen fixation
			11.3.1.2 Phosphate solubilization
			11.3.1.3 Potassium solubilization
			11.3.1.4 Iron acquisition
			11.3.1.5 Phytohormone production
				11.3.1.5.1 Indole-3-acetic acid
				11.3.1.5.2 Cytokinins
				11.3.1.5.3 Gibberellins
				11.3.1.5.4 Abscisic acid
		11.3.2 Indirect mechanism
			11.3.2.1 Disease resistance antibiosis
			11.3.2.2 Bacteriocin
			11.3.2.3 Production of protective enzymes
				11.3.2.3.1 Chitinase
				11.3.2.3.2 Glucanase
				11.3.2.3.3 Protease
				11.3.2.3.4 Cellulase
			11.3.2.4 Hydrogen cyanide and ammonia
			11.3.2.5 1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate deaminase
			11.3.2.6 Exopolysaccharide production
			11.3.2.7 Heavy metal and organic pollutant remediation
			11.3.2.8 Production of volatile organic compounds
			11.3.2.9 Induced systemic resistance
	11.4 Development of biofertilizer formulations for rhizoengineering
	11.5 Scope of application of biofertilizers as an alternative to agrochemicals for sustainable agricultural practice
	References
12 Agrochemical usage for sustainable fruit production and human health
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Evaluation of the environment of conventional orcharding
	12.3 Principles of sustainable orcharding
		12.3.1 Biodiversity
		12.3.2 Soil health
	12.4 Safety of foods and health effects of agrochemicals
	12.5 Conclusion
	References
13 Earthworm-assisted bioremediation of agrochemicals
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Types and classification of agrochemicals
	13.3 Consumption of agrochemicals and its regulation: global versus India
		13.3.1 Global regulations
		13.3.2 Indian regulations
	13.4 Effect of agrochemicals on environment and human health
		13.4.1 Environmental impacts
			13.4.1.1 Water
			13.4.1.2 Air
			13.4.1.3 Soil
		13.4.2 Human health impact
	13.5 Strategies to overcome the harmful effects of agrochemicals
		13.5.1 Role of earthworm in agrochemicals remediation
	13.6 Future prospects and conclusion
	References
	Further reading
14 Vermiremediation remediation of agrochemicals
	14.1 Introduction
		14.1.1 Agrochemicals
			14.1.1.1 Statistics of agrochemical market
		14.1.2 Impact of agrochemicals to the environment
			14.1.2.1 Soil contamination and impact on soil fertility
			14.1.2.2 Water contamination
			14.1.2.3 Impact on humans
			14.1.2.4 Effect on nontarget organisms
	14.2 Bioremediation
		14.2.1 Bacteria in degradation of agrochemicals
		14.2.2 Enzymes in degradation of agrochemicals
	14.3 Vermiculture technology: green technology
		14.3.1 Earthworm species suitable for biodegradation of pesticides
		14.3.2 Mechanism of earthworm action in vermicomposting technology
			14.3.2.1 Abiotic effects of earthworms on soil environment
			14.3.2.2 Biotic effects of earthworms on soil
			14.3.2.3 Earthworm-assisted bioremediation
	14.4 Vermiremediation: a global movement for soil improvement
	14.5 Global movement toward replacing chemical agriculture by ecological agriculture
	14.6 Advantages/challenges in vermiremediation of agrochemicals
	14.7 Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
15 Efficient phosphate recovery from fertilizer wastewater stream through simultaneous Ca and F ions removal
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Production of phosphate-based fertilizer and its typical phosphate effluent
		15.2.1 Effect of Ca ions toward phosphate recovery
		15.2.2 Effect of F ions toward phosphate recovery
	15.3 Simultaneous Ca and F removal process
		15.3.1 Electrodialysis
		15.3.2 Electrocoagulation
		15.3.3 Chemical precipitation
	15.4 Chemistry of simultaneous Ca and F removal (struvite formation)
		15.4.1 Electrodialysis
		15.4.2 Electrocoagulation
			15.4.2.1 Kinetic and modeling of electrocoagulation
			15.4.2.2 Current density
			15.4.2.3 Film thickness
	15.5 Economic aspect of phosphate recovery through simultaneous Ca and F removal
	15.6 Effect of Ca and F ions on environment
		15.6.1 Calcium ions
		15.6.2 Fluoride ions
		15.6.3 Source of Ca and F in wastewater
			15.6.3.1 Fluoride ions
			15.6.3.2 Calcium ions
	References
16 African perspective of chemical usage in agriculture and horticulture—their impact on human health and environment
	16.1 Introduction
		16.1.1 Degradation of agrochemicals in the environment
		16.1.2 Pesticides
			16.1.2.1 Toxicology
			16.1.2.2 Basics of pesticides in agrochemical industry
			16.1.2.3 Biochemical pesticides
				16.1.2.3.1 Microbial pesticides
				16.1.2.3.2 Cosmetic pesticides
				16.1.2.3.3 Indicator of pesticides exposure
				16.1.2.3.4 Pesticide selection, dosage, and application methodology
		16.1.3 Fertilizers
			16.1.3.1 Biological substitutes for agrochemicals
				16.1.3.1.1 Biopesticides
				16.1.3.1.2 Development of natural pesticides
				16.1.3.1.3 Pesticides from plant oils
			16.1.3.2 Greener management of agrochemical pollution via eco-friendly approach
				16.1.3.2.1 Synergic approach of academia and industries for sustainable development
				16.1.3.2.2 Controlled-release formulations
	16.2 African perspective
		16.2.1 Pesticide utilization
		16.2.2 Fertilizer utilization
		16.2.3 Food security issues
		16.2.4 Health and environment effects
		16.2.5 Alternatives to pesticides and fertilizers
			16.2.5.1 Organic agriculture and its limitations
			16.2.5.2 The potential of biopesticides
			16.2.5.3 The potential of biofertilizers
			16.2.5.4 Essential oil alternatives
			16.2.5.5 Gardening alternatives
		16.2.6 Horticultural alternatives
		16.2.7 Safer low-cost alternatives to agrochemicals for agricultural sustainability in Africa
	References
	Further reading
17 Chitosan conjugates, microspheres, and nanoparticles with potential agrochemical activity
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Chemistry and properties of chitosan
	17.3 Strategies for the production of chitosan-based delivery systems
	17.4 Emulsion cross-linking
	17.5 Emulsion-droplet coalescence
	17.6 Ionotropic gelation
	17.7 Precipitation
	17.8 Reverse micelles
	17.9 Sieving method
	17.10 Spray drying
	17.11 Mode of action of chitosan in inducing resistance in plants
	17.12 Applications in the agriculture sector
		17.12.1 Biological activity of chitosan against plant pathogens
		17.12.2 Combination of chitosan with phytohormones
		17.12.3 Metal–chitosan conjugates
		17.12.4 Combination of essential oils with chitosan
		17.12.5 Combination of chitosan with other molecules
	17.13 Chitosan for delivery of fertilizers and micronutrients
	17.14 Chitosan-based delivery of synthetic and biopesticides for crop protection
	17.15 Chitosan-based delivery of herbicide
	17.16 Chitosan-assisted gene delivery
	17.17 Concluding remarks
	Acknowledgments
	References
18 Advances in agrochemical remediation using nanoparticles
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Removal of agrochemicals with nanoparticles
	18.3 Surface-engineered nanoparticles in agrochemical remediation
	18.4 Nanotechnology for degradation of persistent agrochemicals
	18.5 Agrochemical cleaning systems using nanocomposites
	18.6 Outlook
	References
19 Nanotechnology and remediation of agrochemicals
	Abbreviations
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Remediation of agrochemicals assisted by nanotechnology
		19.2.1 Adsorption processes
		19.2.2 Nanofiltration
		19.2.3 Advanced oxidation processes and their application in the processes of agrochemicals remediation
			19.2.3.1 Heterogeneous AOPs
	19.3 Alternative remediation procedures assisted by nanotechnology—phytoremediation, bioremediation
		19.3.1 Nanophytoremediation
		19.3.2 Nanobioremediation
	19.4 Impact of nanobiotechnology in the prevention of environmental pollution in agriculture
		19.4.1 Nanofertilizers
		19.4.2 Nanopesticides
		19.4.3 Nanosensors
	19.5 Emerging risks of nanobiotechnology applications in remediation and agriculture
	19.6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
20 Nanotechnology for remediations of agrochemicals
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Conventional methods for removals of agrochemicals and the needs for nanotechnology
	20.3 Inorganic nanomaterials
		20.3.1 Metal- and metal oxide–based nanomaterials
			20.3.1.1 Reductive destruction
				20.3.1.1.1 Nanoscale zerovalent iron
				20.3.1.1.2 Silver nanoparticles and gold nanoparticles
				20.3.1.1.3 Nanocrystalline metal oxides as destructive adsorbents
			20.3.1.2 Oxidative destruction
				20.3.1.2.1 Titanium oxide
				20.3.1.2.2 Zinc oxide
		20.3.2 Silica-based nanomaterials
	20.4 Carbon-based nanomaterials
		20.4.1 Graphene
		20.4.2 Carbon nanotubes
	20.5 Conclusion
	References
21 Green technologies for the removal of agrochemicals by aquatic plants
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Removal of agrochemicals by aquatic plants
	21.3 Pesticides
		21.3.1 Organophosphorus compounds
		21.3.2 Organochlorine compounds
		21.3.3 Organochlorine and organophosphorus compounds
		21.3.4 Pyrethroid compounds
		21.3.5 Carbamates
		21.3.6 Fungicides
		21.3.7 Herbicides
	21.4 Mechanism of uptake and transformation
	21.5 Removal of agrochemical compounds by wetlands
	21.6 Conclusion
	References
22 Mycoremediation of agrochemicals
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Mechanisms of toxicity of agrochemicals
	22.3 Effect of agrochemicals
		22.3.1 Effect on microorganisms
		22.3.2 Effect on soil enzymes
		22.3.3 Effect on annelids
		22.3.4 Effect on arthropods
	22.4 Physicochemical technologies available for degradation of agrochemicals
	22.5 Biological approaches for decontamination
		22.5.1 Fungi as effective means of bioremediation
		22.5.2 Enzymatic degradation
	22.6 Mechanism of fungal degradation of agrochemicals
	22.7 Future perspectives
	22.8 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
23 Biochar-mediated soils for efficient use of agrochemicals
	23.1 Introduction
		23.1.1 Influence from sources, properties, and production technologies
		23.1.2 Biochar characteristics: surface area, surface functional groups
		23.1.3 Cation-exchange capacity and charge characteristics
		23.1.4 Biochar stability
	23.2 Biochar benefits: abiotic soil components
		23.2.1 Influence of biochar on soil physical properties
		23.2.2 Influence of biochar on soil’s chemical properties
		23.2.3 Sorption–desorption of pesticides
		23.2.4 Retention and release of nutrients in biochar
	23.3 Influence of microorganisms and fertility on biochar application
		23.3.1 Habitat for soil organisms
		23.3.2 Microorganism community and activity
	23.4 Biochar on the accessibility of agrochemicals in soils
		23.4.1 Bioavailability of agrochemical for plant uptake
		23.4.2 Pesticides uptake by other soil fauna
	23.5 Drawbacks and implication of biochar-amended soils
	23.6 Future research needs
	References
Index
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