Agricultural nonpoint source pollution : watershed management and hydrology

AGRICULTURAL NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION: Watershed Management and Hydrology......Page 1
Preface......Page 3
Editors......Page 5
Contributors......Page 7
Table of Contents......Page 9
1.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 11
1.2 HYDROLOGIC CYCLE......Page 12
1.2.1.1 Description......Page 13
1.2.2.1 Description......Page 15
1.2.2.3 Rainfall Excess......Page 17
1.2.2.4 Runoff Hydrographs......Page 20
1.2.3 SOIL WATER MOVEMENT......Page 23
1.2.4 INFILTRATION......Page 26
1.2.5 GROUNDWATER......Page 31
1.2.5.1 Groundwater Flow Estimation......Page 34
REFERENCES......Page 35
CONTENTS......Page 38
2.1.1 TERMINOLOGY......Page 39
2.1.2 MODELS......Page 40
2.2.2 RILL EROSION......Page 42
2.2.3 INTERRILL EROSION......Page 43
2.2.4 SEDIMENT TRANSPORT......Page 45
2.2.5 ERODED SEDIMENT-SIZE FRACTIONS AND SEDIMENT ENRICHMENT......Page 46
2.3.2 THE UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS EQUATION USLE......Page 48
2.3.3 THE SEDIMENT CONTINUITY EQUATION......Page 49
2.3.4 FORMS OF THE SEDIMENT CONTINUITY EQUATION......Page 51
2.3.5 THE SEDIMENT FEEDBACK RELATIONSHIP FOR RILL DETACHMENT......Page 53
2.3.6 DETACHMENT OF SOIL IN RILLS......Page 55
2.3.7 MODELING INTERRILL EROSION......Page 56
2.3.9 MODELING SEDIMENT DEPOSITION......Page 57
2.3.10 MODELING ERODED SEDIMENT SIZE FFRACTIONS AND SEDIMENT ENRICHMENT......Page 59
2.4.1 EFFECTS OF SURFACE COVER ON RILL EROSION......Page 60
2.4.1 EFFECTS OF SOIL CONSOLIDATION AND TILLAGE ON RILL EROSION......Page 61
2.4.4 CANOPY AND GROUND COVER INFLUENCES ON INTERRILL DETACHMENT......Page 62
REFERENCES......Page 63
TABLE OF CONTENTS......Page 68
3.1.1 MINERALIZATION AND IMMOBILIZATION......Page 69
3.1.2 PLANT N UPTAKE......Page 71
3.1.3 LEACHING AND SURFACE RUNOFF......Page 72
3.1.4 AMMONIA VOLATILIZATION AND DENITRIFICATION......Page 74
3.2.1 FERTILIZERS......Page 75
3.2.2 LIVESTOCK WASTES......Page 77
3.2.3 LAND APPLICATION OF MANURES, SLUDGES, AND WASTEWATER......Page 78
3.3.1 FERTILIZERS......Page 80
3.3.3 LAND APPLICATION OF MANURES AND SLUDGES......Page 81
3.4 GROUNDWATER–SURFACE WATER INTERACTIONS......Page 83
3.5 RIPARIAN ZONE PROCESSES......Page 84
3.6.1 SURFACE WATER......Page 85
3.6.2 GROUNDWATER......Page 86
3.8.1.2 Realistic Yield Goals......Page 87
3.8.1.7 Nitrification Inhibitors......Page 88
3.8.2.2. Drainage Volume......Page 89
3.9 SUMMARY......Page 90
REFERENCES......Page 91
4.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 99
4.2 PHOSPHORUS SOURCES, SINKS, AND CHARACTERIZATION......Page 101
4.3 INTRODUCTION OF PHOSPHORUS INTO THE ENVIRONMENT......Page 103
4.4.1.1 Adsorption/Desorption......Page 104
4.4.1.2 Precipitation/Dissolution......Page 106
4.4.1.3 Mineralization/Immobilization......Page 107
4.4.1.4 Plant Uptake......Page 108
4.5.1 FACTORS INFLUENCING P TRANSPORT PROCESSES......Page 109
4.5.1.1 Surface Transport......Page 110
4.6 IMPACTS OF P LOADINGS TO AQUATIC SYSTEMS......Page 113
4.7.1 AVAILABILITY-BASED APPROACHES......Page 114
REFERENCES......Page 115
5.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 118
5.2 FATE AND TRANSPORT PROCESSES......Page 119
5.2.1 PESTICIDE PROPERTIES......Page 121
5.2.2 SOIL PROPERTIES......Page 123
5.2.3 SITE CONDITIONS......Page 124
5.3.1 MONITORING STUDIES......Page 125
5.3.2 WATERSHED AND FIELD-SCALE STUDIES......Page 127
5.3.3 MANAGEMENT EFFECTS......Page 128
5.4.1 MONITORING STUDIES......Page 130
5.4.2 WATERSHED AND FIELD-SCALE STUDIES......Page 132
5.4.3 MANAGEMENT EFFECTS......Page 133
5.5 SUMMARY......Page 135
REFERENCES......Page 136
CONTENTS......Page 141
6.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 142
6.3.1 SOURCES......Page 143
6.3.2 ORGANIC MATTER......Page 147
6.3.3 NUTRIENTS......Page 148
6.3.4 MICROORGANISMS......Page 150
6.4 BARNYARD AND FEEDLOT RUNOFF......Page 151
6.5 MANURE STORAGE AND TREATMENT......Page 154
6.6.1 APPLICATION METHODS......Page 156
6.6.2 SURFACE WATER QUALITY......Page 157
6.6.3 SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE WATER QUALITY......Page 158
6.6.4 GROUNDWATER QUALITY......Page 160
6.7.1 BARNYARD AND FEEDLOT RUNOFF......Page 161
6.7.3.1 Application Timing......Page 162
6.7.3.4 Soil Testing for Residual Nutrients......Page 163
6.7.3.8 Nitrification Inhibitors......Page 164
6.7.3.12 Alum Addition......Page 165
6.8 LIVESTOCK GRAZING IMPACTS......Page 166
6.9 SUMMARY......Page 167
REFERENCES......Page 168
CONTENTS......Page 174
7.2 WHY IRRIGATION CAUSES NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION......Page 175
7.3.1 NITRATE......Page 176
7.3.1.1 Case Study: Nitrate Pollution of Groundwater in the Salinas Valley of California......Page 177
7.3.2.1 Case Study: Pesticides in Surface Runoff from Rice Fields in the Sacramento Valley, California......Page 179
7.3.3 SALTS AND TRACE ELEMENTS......Page 180
7.3.3.1 Case Study: Subsurface Drainage Problem Along the West Side of the San Joaquin Valley......Page 181
7.3.4.1 Effect of Surface Runoff on Water Quality......Page 182
7.3.4.2 Assessing the Potential for Erosion and Surface Runoff Quality Problems......Page 183
7.3.4.3 Case Study: The Rock Creek Rural Clean Water Project?Erosion and Sediment Control in Southern Idaho......Page 184
7.4 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF IRRIGATION SYSTEMS AFFECTING NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION......Page 185
7.4.1.1 Surface Irrigation......Page 186
7.4.1.2 Sprinkler Irrigation......Page 187
7.4.2 IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY......Page 188
7.5 REDUCING DRAINAGE FROM IRRIGATED LAND: A CONCEPTUAL APPROACH......Page 189
7.6.1 IMPROVE IRRIGATION SCHEDULING......Page 193
7.6.2 IMPOSE DEFICIT IRRIGATION......Page 194
7.6.3.1 Surface Irrigation......Page 195
7.6.3.2 Sprinkler Irrigation......Page 196
7.6.3.3 Microirrigation......Page 197
7.7.1 REDUCING FLOW EROSIVENESS......Page 198
7.7.3 REDUCING SEDIMENT DISCHARGE......Page 199
7.7.5 CONVERSION TO SPRINKLER IRRIGATION OR MICROIRRIGATION......Page 200
7.8 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN REDUCING NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION......Page 201
7.9.1 PHYSICAL LIMITATIONS......Page 203
7.9.3 SOLUTE TRAVEL TIMES......Page 204
7.10 SUMMARY......Page 205
REFERENCES......Page 206
CONTENTS......Page 212
8.2 HISTORY OF DRAINAGE IN THE UNITED STATES......Page 213
8.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS FOR SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE......Page 214
8.4.2 CONVENTIONAL SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE......Page 215
8.5.1.1 Drainage Characteristics......Page 216
8.5.1.3 Barrier......Page 217
8.5.2 DETAILED FIELD INVESTIGATIONS......Page 218
8.5.5 OPERATIONS AND SYSTEM MANAGEMENT......Page 219
8.6 SOIL AND CROP MANAGEMENT ASPECTS OF WATER-TABLE MANAGEMENT......Page 220
8.7.2.1 Conventional Drainage......Page 221
8.7.2.2. Controlled Drainage......Page 226
8.7.3.1 Conventional Drainage......Page 227
8.7.3.2 Controlled Drainage......Page 229
8.9 INSTITUTIONAL AND SOCIAL CONSTRAINTS......Page 230
8.10 SUMMARY......Page 231
REFERENCES......Page 232
9.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 237
9.2 CONCEPT OF MODELING......Page 238
9.3 MODEL PHILOSOPHY......Page 239
9.4 MODEL CLASSIFICATION......Page 240
9.5 TYPES OF WATER QUALITY MODELS......Page 242
9.6.1.1 Problem Definition......Page 245
9.6.2 DATABASE REQUIREMENT......Page 246
9.6.4 MODEL VALIDATION AND VERIFICATION......Page 247
9.6.5 DOCUMENTATION......Page 248
9.7 WATER QUALITY MODELS AND THE ROLE OF GIS......Page 249
9.8 USE AND MISUSES OF WATER QUALITY MODELS......Page 252
REFERENCES......Page 254
CONTENTS......Page 261
10.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 262
10.2.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS......Page 263
10.2.2 CONSERVATION TILLAGE......Page 267
10.2.3 CONTOUR FARMING......Page 270
10.2.4 STRIP CROPPING......Page 272
10.2.5 BUFFER ZONES......Page 273
10.2.6 COVER CROPS AND CONSERVATION CROP ROTATIONS......Page 276
10.2.7 NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT......Page 278
10.2.8 MANURE STORAGE FACILITIES......Page 281
10.2.9 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT......Page 283
10.2.10 PRECISION FARMING......Page 284
10.2.11 TERRACES, VEGETATED WATERWAYS, AND DIVERSIONS......Page 285
10.2.12 SEDIMENT DETENTION STRUCTURES......Page 287
10.2.13 CONSTRUCTED WETLAND......Page 289
10.2.14 STREAM FENCING AND OFF-STREAM WATER SUPPLIES......Page 290
10.2.15 ROTATIONAL GRAZING......Page 291
10.3 BMP IMPACT ASSESSMENT......Page 292
10.3.1.1 Step 1: Define the Monitoring Objectives......Page 293
10.3.1.2 Step 2: Select Statistical Design and Analysis Procedures......Page 294
10.3.1.2.1 Statistical Design for BMP Impact Assessment......Page 295
10.3.1.2.2 Statistical Analysis of the Data......Page 296
10.3.1.3.2 Selection of Water Quality Variables......Page 298
10.3.1.4 Step 4: Develop Operating Plans and Procedures......Page 299
REFERENCES......Page 300
11.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 309
11.2.1 PLANNING......Page 311
11.2.2 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES......Page 312
11.2.3 DATA NEEDS AND DATA COLLECTION......Page 313
11.2.4.2 Sampling Sites......Page 314
11.2.4.3 Quality Assurance/Quality Control......Page 315
11.2.4 RECONCILING RHETORIC AND REALITY......Page 316
11.3.1 EDGE-OF-FIELD OVERLAND FLOW......Page 317
11.3.1.1 Flow Measurement......Page 318
11.3.2 BOTTOM OF ROOT ZONE......Page 319
11.3.3 GROUNDWATER......Page 321
11.3.4 DRAINAGE PIPES AND SPRINGS......Page 322
11.3.5 SURFACE WATER......Page 323
11.3.6 SOIL......Page 324
11.4.1 STATISTICAL CONTROL......Page 325
11.4.2 SURFACE WATER......Page 326
11.4.4 SOIL......Page 327
11.5 SUMMARY......Page 328
REFERENCES......Page 329