Aflatoxin and Food Safety (Food Science and Technology)

Aflatoxin and Food Safety......Page 1
Copyright......Page 8
Preface......Page 10
The Editor......Page 11
Acknowledgments......Page 12
Contributors......Page 13
Table of Contents......Page 18
1.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 22
1.2 RESEARCH COSTS......Page 23
1.3 TESTING AND INSURANCE......Page 24
1.4.2 COTTON......Page 25
1.4.3 CORN......Page 26
1.4.4 TREE NUTS......Page 28
1.4.5 BARLEY......Page 29
1.4.6 WHEAT......Page 30
1.5 DISCUSSION......Page 31
REFERENCES......Page 32
2.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 34
2.2.2 SOUTH AFRICA......Page 36
2.3.3 TANZANIA......Page 38
2.4.1 EGYPT......Page 39
2.4.4 SUDAN......Page 40
2.5.2 CAMEROON......Page 41
2.5.4 GAMBIA......Page 42
2.5.7 SIERRA LEONE......Page 43
REFERENCES......Page 44
3.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 50
3.1.2 PATTERNS OF DIET AND AFL-RELATED FOOD......Page 51
3.1.3 REGULATION......Page 52
3.1.4 AFLATOXIN EXPOSURE IN THE SOUTH AMERICAN POPULATION......Page 53
3.2 CLIMATE......Page 54
3.3.1.1 Brazil Agriculture and Mycotoxins......Page 57
3.3.1.2 Aflatoxins in the Brazilian Diet......Page 58
3.3.1.3 Population Exposure vs. Staple Foods......Page 60
3.3.2 COUNTRIES OF SOUTHERN SOUTH AMERICA: ARGENTINA, CHILE, AND URUGUAY......Page 66
3.3.3 COUNTRIES OF NORTHERN SOUTH AMERICA: COLOMBIA, ECUADOR, FRENCH GUYANA, GUYANA, SURINAME, AND VENEZUELA......Page 70
3.5 CONCLUSIONS......Page 72
REFERENCES......Page 74
4.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 79
4.2 MAIZE PRODUCTION IN MEXICO......Page 80
4.3 AFLATOXIN INCIDENCE IN MAIZE AND MAIZE-DERIVED PRODUCTS......Page 81
4.4 AFLATOXIN REGULATIONS IN MEXICO......Page 82
4.5 BREEDING FOR RESISTANCE TO AFLATOXIN CONTAMINATION......Page 83
4.7 ASPERGILLUS MANAGEMENT IN THE FIELD......Page 86
4.8 ASPERGILLUS MANAGEMENT DURING STORAGE......Page 87
4.9 GRAIN TREATMENTS TO REDUCE AFLATOXIN LEVELS......Page 88
4.10 FATE OF AFLATOXINS IN PROCESSED MAIZE PRODUCTS......Page 89
4.11 CONCLUSIONS......Page 90
REFERENCES......Page 91
5.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 96
5.2.1 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION AND HAZARD CHARACTERIZATION......Page 97
5.2.3 SAMPLING PROCEDURES......Page 99
5.2.4 METHODS OF ANALYSIS......Page 100
5.2.5 TRADE CONTRACTS......Page 101
5.3 AFLATOXIN REGULATIONS AND DEVELOPMENTS......Page 102
5.3.2 OBSERVATIONS......Page 103
5.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 109
REFERENCES......Page 110
6.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 113
6.2 AFLATOXIGENIC SPECIES......Page 114
6.3 GENETIC DIVERSITY OF SOIL POPULATIONS......Page 115
6.4.1 REGIONAL SURVEYS......Page 117
6.4.2 CONTINENTAL SURVEYS......Page 118
6.4.3 WORLDWIDE SURVEYS......Page 120
6.5 ADAPTATIONS FOR SURVIVAL IN SOIL......Page 121
6.6 SOIL AS A SOURCE OF PRIMARY INOCULUM......Page 123
6.7 SOIL POPULATION DYNAMICS IN RELATION TO CROPS......Page 124
6.8 SELECTIVE EFFECTS OF CROPS......Page 127
REFERENCES......Page 128
CONTENTS......Page 135
7.2.1 POLYKETIDE SYNTHASE AND FATTY ACID SYNTHASE......Page 136
7.2.2 MONOOXYGENASES......Page 139
7.2.3 DEHYDROGENASES......Page 140
7.2.6 REGULATORY FACTORS AFLR AND AFLJ......Page 141
7.3.1.3 stcV and stcC......Page 143
7.3.1.4 StcT......Page 144
7.4 MISSING FUNCTIONS IN THE STERIGMATOCYSTIN CLUSTER......Page 145
7.5.1 GENES CONVERTING STERIGMATOCYSTIN TO AFLATOXIN......Page 146
7.5.3 PARTIAL CLUSTER DUPLICATION IN ASPERGILLUS PARASITICUS......Page 147
7.6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 148
REFERENCES......Page 149
CONTENTS......Page 155
8.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 156
8.2.1 THE GENUS ASPERGILLUS......Page 157
8.2.2 ASPERGILLUS SECTION FLAVI......Page 159
8.2.3 MYCOTOXIN PRODUCTION BY SPECIES IN SECTION FLAVI......Page 160
8.3 POPULATION BIOLOGY......Page 161
8.3.2 VEGETATIVE COMPATIBILITY GROUPS......Page 162
8.4.1 PATHOGENICITY......Page 164
8.4.2 IMPACT OF THE SURROUNDING ENVIRONMENT......Page 166
8.5.2 GENE MAPPING......Page 167
8.5.3 GENOME ORGANIZATION......Page 168
8.5.4 CLUSTERING OF AFLATOXIN GENES......Page 169
8.6.1 PATHWAY-SPECIFIC AND GLOBAL REGULATION......Page 171
8.6.2 G-PROTEIN SIGNALING AND PROTEIN KINASE ACTIVITY......Page 172
8.6.3 IMPORTANCE OF CHROMOSOMAL LOCATION......Page 173
8.7.1 GENOME SEQUENCING AND COMPARATIVE GENOMICS......Page 174
8.7.2 GENE EXPRESSION ANALYSIS......Page 175
REFERENCES......Page 177
CONTENTS......Page 184
9.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 185
9.2.1 FUNGAL VIRULENCE GENES......Page 186
9.2.1.2 Proteases......Page 187
9.2.1.3 Amylases......Page 188
9.2.2 NUTRIENT UTILIZATION GENES......Page 189
9.2.3.1 Aflatoxin Pathway Genes......Page 192
9.2.3.2 Aflatoxin Pathway Regulatory Genes......Page 195
9.3.1.2 Corn Kernel Proteins/Enzymes......Page 196
9.3.1.2.3 Ribosome-Inactivating Proteins......Page 197
9.3.2 STRESS-RESPONSIVE PROTEINS AND THEIR POSSIBLE ROLE IN INHIBITING FUNGAL INVASION......Page 198
9.3.3 INTERFERENCE WITH AFLATOXIN BIOSYNTHESIS AND RELATED GENES BY HOST PLANT FACTORS AND NATURAL PRODUCTS......Page 199
9.4 USE OF FUNGAL GENOMICS AND SEED/KERNEL PROTEOMICS TO INVESTIGATE MECHANISMS REGULATING A. FLAVUS INVASION AND AFLATOXIN CONTAMINATION OF CROPS DURING PLANT–FUNGUS INTERACTIONS......Page 200
REFERENCES......Page 201
10.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 211
10.2 ECOLOGICAL AND CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES......Page 212
10.3 CASE-CONTROL STUDIES......Page 214
10.4 COHORT STUDIES......Page 216
10.5 AFLATOXIN EXPOSURE AND MUTATIONS IN THE P53 TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENE......Page 220
REFERENCES......Page 223
CONTENTS......Page 228
11.2.1 GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION: DEVELOPED VS. DEVELOPINg COUNTRIES......Page 229
11.2.2 REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION: AGROECOSYSTEM INFLUENCE......Page 230
11.2.2.1 Temperate Zones......Page 231
11.2.2.2 Humid Tropics......Page 232
11.2.3 DISTRIBUTION OF ASPERGILLUS FLAVUS STRAINS......Page 234
11.2.4 SOCIAL SYSTEM AND FOOD BASKET......Page 235
11.2.5.1 Human Disease and Nutritional Status......Page 237
11.2.6.1 Growth and Immune Suppression in Animals......Page 238
11.2.6.2 Growth Suppression in Humans......Page 239
11.3.1 EFFICACY OF SAMPLINg PROTOCOLS AND REGULATORY ACTION LEVELS......Page 240
11.3.2 CANCER RISK REDUCTION......Page 242
11.3.3 AGRICULTURAL MANAGEMENT......Page 243
11.4 CONCLUSIONS......Page 245
REFERENCES......Page 246
12.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 251
12.2 SAMPLING PLANS AND SAMPLING DEVICES......Page 252
12.3 SCREENING METHODS......Page 254
12.4 ADVANCES IN SAMPLE CLEAN-UP......Page 256
12.5 TLC AND HPTLC METHODOLOGY......Page 267
12.6 HPLC METHODS......Page 268
12.8 CONFIRMATORY METHODS......Page 270
12.9 VALIDATION OF ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR AFLATOXINS......Page 271
12.10 PROFICIENCY TESTING......Page 272
12.11 CONCLUSIONS......Page 274
REFERENCES......Page 275
13.1. INTRODUCTION......Page 283
13.2.1.1 Fiberoptic Devices......Page 286
13.2.1.2 Surface Plasmon Resonance......Page 288
13.2.2 TEST STRIPS......Page 290
13.2.3 FLUORESCENCE POLARIZATION AND TIME-RESOLVED FLUORESCENCE......Page 292
13.2.4.1 Microbead Assays......Page 294
13.2.4.3 Capillary Electrophoretic Immunoassay......Page 296
13.3 FUTURE CHALLENGES......Page 298
REFERENCES......Page 300
CONTENTS......Page 305
14.2 THE AFLATOXIN PROBLEM......Page 306
14.3 COMPARISON OF AFLATOXIN IMPACTS IN DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES......Page 307
14.3.1.3 Analytical Costs......Page 308
14.3.1.4 Crop Value Shift/Crop Remediation Costs......Page 309
14.3.2 THE PRIMARY AFLATOXIN CONCERN IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: HEALTH IMPACTS......Page 310
14.4 AFLATOXIN MONITORING IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES......Page 311
14.5 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH AFLATOXIN MONITORING IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES......Page 312
14.6 THE RATIONALE FOR MONITORING AFLATOXIGENIC FUNGAL CONTAMINATION LEVELS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES......Page 314
14.7.2 SELECTIVE CULTURE CONDITIONS......Page 315
14.7.3.2 Cyclodextrin-Enhanced Blue Fluorescence......Page 316
14.7.3.5 Combined Aflatoxigenicity Test......Page 317
14.8 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF MONITORING AFLATOXIGENIC FUNGAL LEVELS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES......Page 318
14.9 ADDITIONAL STUDIES NEEDED......Page 319
REFERENCES......Page 321
CONTENTS......Page 326
15.2 AFLATOXIN CONTAMINATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS......Page 327
15.3 DROUGHT STRESS/TOLERANCE AND AFLATOXIN CONTAMINATION......Page 328
15.4 GENETIC ENGINEERING AND PREVENTION OF AFLATOXIN FORMATION......Page 329
15.4.1 INSECT RESISTANCE IN TRANSGENIC CROPS......Page 330
15.4.2 FUNGAL RESISTANCE AND INHIBITION OF TOXIN PRODUCTION IN TRANSGENIC CROPS......Page 331
15.5.1 EXPRESSED GENE DIFFERENTIAL DISPLAY......Page 332
15.5.2 EXPRESSED SEQUENCE TAG AND MACRO/MICROARRAY......Page 333
15.5.3 PROTEOMICS......Page 334
15.5.4.1 Expression Vector......Page 335
15.5.4.3 Methods for Transformation......Page 336
15.6 SUMMARY AND PROSPECTS......Page 337
REFERENCES......Page 338
16.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 345
16.2 BACTERIA AND YEASTS......Page 346
16.3 COMPETITIVE FUNGI......Page 347
16.4 FORMULATIONS......Page 349
16.5 FUNGAL DISPERSAL......Page 353
16.6.1 PEANUTS......Page 354
16.6.2 COTTON......Page 358
16.7 CONCLUSIONS......Page 360
REFERENCES......Page 361
CONTENTS......Page 365
17.2.1 INOCULATION AND AFLATOXIN QUANTIFICATION......Page 366
17.2.2 FIELD EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS AND DATA ANALYSIS......Page 367
17.3.1 REPEATABILITIES FOR SINGLE ENVIRONMENT TRIALS......Page 368
17.3.3 INBRED–HYBRID CORRELATION FOR AFLATOXIN......Page 369
17.4.2 ENDOSPERM TYPE......Page 371
17.4.3 KERNEL INTEGRITY......Page 372
17.4.4 DROUGHT AND HEAT TOLERANCE AND ADAPTATION......Page 373
17.5.1 WHITE INBREDS......Page 374
17.5.3 SPECIALTY CORN INBREDS......Page 375
17.6 EVALUATION OF INBREDS IN HYBRIDS......Page 377
17.6.2 YELLOW HYBRIDS......Page 378
17.6.4 DIALLELS......Page 381
17.6.5 FACTORIAL DESIGNS......Page 382
17.6.6 GENERATION MEAN ANALYSIS......Page 383
17.6.7 COMMERCIAL HYBRIDS......Page 384
17.7 OVERVIEW OF DEVELOPMENT OF INBREDS AND HYBRIDS THAT REDUCE THE RISK OF AFLATOXIN......Page 385
17.8 CONCLUSIONS AND CURRENT DIRECTIONS......Page 386
REFERENCES......Page 387
18.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 390
18.2.1 DEVELOPING GERMPLASM EVALUATION TECHNIQUES......Page 391
18.3.1 MATERIALS AND METHODS......Page 392
18.4.1 MATERIALS AND METHODS......Page 393
18.4.2 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION......Page 396
18.5.1.2 Single-Cross Evaluation......Page 398
18.5.2.2 Single-Cross Evaluation......Page 399
18.6 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS......Page 400
REFERENCES......Page 404
19.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 406
19.2 SOURCES OF RESISTANCE TO AFLATOXIN CONTAMINATION IN CORN GRAIN......Page 407
19.3 SOURCES OF RESISTANCE TO FUMONISIN ACCUMULATION IN CORN GRAIN......Page 411
19.4 CURRENT DIRECTION......Page 413
REFERENCES......Page 414
20.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 417
20.2.1 NONWOUNDING INOCULATION TECHNIQUES......Page 418
20.2.2 WOUNDING INOCULATION TECHNIQUES......Page 420
20.2.3 INOCULUM......Page 423
20.2.4 HARVEST, SAMPLE PREPARATION, TOXIN ANALYSES, AND FUNGAL INFECTION......Page 424
20.2.5 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS......Page 425
20.4 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS......Page 426
REFERENCES......Page 427
21.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 432
21.2 STRATEGY FOR MARKER-ASSISTED BREEDING......Page 433
21.3 CHALLENGES IN QTL IDENTIFICATION......Page 435
21.4 APPLICATIONS OF MARKER-ASSISTED BREEDING......Page 439
21.6 ARGUMENT FOR MARKER-ASSISTED BREEDING......Page 440
REFERENCES......Page 442
CONTENTS......Page 445
22.2 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS......Page 446
22.2.2 RAINFALL......Page 447
22.3 CROP MANAGEMENT FACTORS......Page 448
22.3.2 IRRIGATION......Page 449
22.3.5 WEED CONTROL......Page 450
22.4.1 CONVENTIONAL......Page 451
22.4.2.3 Husk Coverage......Page 452
22.4.3.2 Kernel Resistance......Page 453
22.4.3.3 Genetic Studies and Selection......Page 454
22.4.3.4 Molecular Breeding......Page 455
22.5 CONCLUSIONS......Page 456
REFERENCES......Page 457
23.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 466
23.2.1 AFLATOXINS......Page 467
23.2.2 FUMONISINS......Page 469
23.3 BT CORN......Page 471
23.4.1 AFLATOXIN......Page 474
23.4.2. FUMONISINS......Page 475
23.5 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF BT CORN ON MYCOTOXIN REDUCTION......Page 477
23.6.2 FUMONISINS......Page 481
23.7.1 THE UNITED STATES......Page 482
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 484
REFERENCES......Page 485
24.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 490
24.1.1 THE TREE NUT INDUSTRY......Page 491
24.1.3 MECHANISMS FOR AFLATOXIN CONTAMINATION OF TREE NUTS......Page 492
24.2.1.1 Insect Control......Page 494
24.2.1.1.1 Semiochemical-Based Insect Control......Page 495
24.2.1.1.2 Other Strategies for Insect Control......Page 496
24.2.1.1.3 Insect Pests and Aflatoxin Interactions......Page 497
24.2.1.2.2 Constitutive Natural Products......Page 499
24.2.2.1 Rehydration......Page 503
24.2.2.2 Sampling Theory......Page 504
24.2.2.3 Sampling Applications, Results, and Use......Page 506
24.2.2.4 Sorting......Page 510
24.3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 512
REFERENCES......Page 513
CONTENTS......Page 523
25.3 NEW INSIGHTS......Page 524
25.4 MONITORING......Page 525
25.5 INSECTICIDES......Page 528
25.6 CULTURAL PRACTICES......Page 529
25.8.1 NEW SOURCES OF RESISTANCE......Page 530
25.8.2.2 Bt Gene Effects on Fusarium Mycotoxins......Page 532
25.8.2.3 Bt Gene Effects on Aspergillus Mycotoxins......Page 533
25.8.2.4 Factors Mitigating the Efficacy of Bt Maize Hybrids in Reducing Mycotoxin Levels......Page 534
25.8.4 BENEFITS AND CONCERNS ABOUT TRANSGENE USE......Page 536
25.8.5 DEPLOYMENT OF RESISTANCE GENES......Page 537
25.10 CONCLUSIONS......Page 538
REFERENCES......Page 539
26.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 548
26.2.2 ALKALINE TREATMENT WITH HYDROXIDE......Page 549
26.2.3 BISULFITE TREATMENT......Page 550
26.2.5 AMMONIATION TREATMENT......Page 551
26.2.6 OZONATION......Page 552
26.4 SUMMARY......Page 554
REFERENCES......Page 555
27.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 559
27.2 AFLATOXIN......Page 560
27.3 FUSARIUM MYCOTOXINS: FUMONISIN AND MONILIFORMIN......Page 562
27.4 IMPACT OF FEEDBORNE MYCOTOXINS ON DISEASE RESISTANCE OF FISH......Page 564
27.5 REDUCTION OF MYCOTOXIN CONTAMINATION IN AQUACULTURE FEEDS......Page 565
27.6 PREVENTION OF MYCOTOXIN CONTAMINATION IN AQUACULTURE FEEDS......Page 566
REFERENCES......Page 567