Advances in Sea Cucumber Processing Technology and Product Development

Contents
Diversity, Distribution, and Biology of Sea Cucumber
	1 Introduction
	2 Classification of Sea Cucumbers
	3 Distribution and Main Economic Types of Sea Cucumber
		3.1 Distribution of Sea Cucumber Resources in the World
		3.2 Sea Cucumbers in China
		3.3 Distribution and Utilization Status of Edible Sea Cucumbers in the World
			3.3.1 Apostichopus Japonicus Selenka
			3.3.2 Cucumaria Frondosa
			3.3.3 Holothuria Scabra
			3.3.4 Parastichopus Californicus
			3.3.5 Isostichopus Fuscus (Ludwig 1875)
			3.3.6 Thelenota Ananas Jaeger
			3.3.7 Stichopus Chloronotus Brandt
			3.3.8 Stichopus Horrens Selenka
			3.3.9 Actinopyga Mauritiana Quoy et Gaimard
	4 Biological Characteristics of Sea Cucumber
		4.1 External Form
		4.2 Internal Structure
	5 Conclusions
	References
Nutritional Components of Sea Cucumber and the Biochemical Characteristics of Autolytic Enzymes
	1 Introduction
	2 Biochemical Characteristics of Main Nutrients in Sea Cucumber
		2.1 Sea Cucumber Collagens
			2.1.1 Contents of Sea Cucumber Collagen
			2.1.2 Distribution of Sea Cucumber Collagen
			2.1.3 Structural Types of Sea Cucumber Collagen
			2.1.4 Biochemical Characteristics of Sea Cucumber Collagen
		2.2 Sea Cucumber Lipids
			2.2.1 Fatty Acid Composition Analysis of Total Lipids from Sea Cucumber
			2.2.2 Sea Cucumber Phospholipids
			2.2.3 Sea Cucumber Sphingolipids
				2.2.3.1 Sea Cucumber Cerebrosides
				2.2.3.2 Sea Cucumber Gangliosides
				2.2.3.3 Sea Cucumber Ceramides
			2.2.4 Sea Cucumber Sterol Sulfates
		2.3 Sulfated Polysaccharides
			2.3.1 Content of Sulfated Polysaccharides in Sea Cucumbers
			2.3.2 Molecular Weight of Sulfated Polysaccharides from Sea Cucumbers
				2.3.2.1 Molecular Weight of fCS
				2.3.2.2 Molecular Weight of SF
			2.3.3 Monosaccharide Composition and Sulfate Content of Sulfated Polysaccharides
				2.3.3.1 Monosaccharide Composition and Sulfate Content of fCS
				2.3.3.2 Monosaccharide Composition and Sulfate Content of SF
			2.3.4 Structure of Sulfated Polysaccharides in Sea Cucumber
				2.3.4.1 Structure of fCS
				2.3.4.2 Structure of SF
	3 Enzymatic Properties of Quality-Related Proteases in Sea Cucumber (Apostichopus Japonicas)
		3.1 Enzymatic Properties
			3.1.1 Serine Protease
			3.1.2 Cysteine Protease
			3.1.3 Matrix Metalloproteinase
			3.1.4 Cathepsin
		3.2 Effects of Endogenous Proteases on the Quality of Sea Cucumbers
			3.2.1 Effect of Serine Protease on the Quality of Sea Cucumbers
			3.2.2 Effect of Cysteine Protease on the Quality of Sea Cucumbers
				3.2.2.1 Effect of Cysteine Protease on Collagen Fiber Structure of Sea Cucumber Dermis
				3.2.2.2 Effect of Cysteine Protease on Non-Collagen Hydrolysis of the Body Walls of Sea Cucumbers
				3.2.2.3 Effect of Cysteine Protease on Autolysis of Different Body Wall Layers of Sea Cucumbers
			3.2.3 Effect of Matrix Metalloproteinase on the Quality of Sea Cucumber
	4 Conclusion
	References
The Functional Components of Sea Cucumber and their Nutritional and Biological Activities
	1 Introduction
	2 Proteins and Peptides
		2.1 Sea Cucumber Collagen Peptides
			2.1.1 Antioxidant Effect
			2.1.2 Antiaging Effect on Skin
			2.1.3 Inhibition of Cellular Melanin Synthesis
			2.1.4 Regulation of Lipid Metabolism
			2.1.5 Regulation of Glucose Metabolism
			2.1.6 Antihypertensive Effect
			2.1.7 Regulation of Purine Metabolism
			2.1.8 Anti-Fatigue Effect
			2.1.9 Others
		2.2 Sea Cucumber Vanadium Protein
			2.2.1 Amelioration of Insulin Resistance
			2.2.2 Inhibition Adipocyte Differentiation
		2.3 Digestion and Absorption of Sea Cucumber Oligopeptides
	3 Sea Cucumber Polysaccharides and their Oligosaccharides
		3.1 Sea Cucumber Chondroitin Sulfate
			3.1.1 Anticoagulant and Antithrombotic Effects
			3.1.2 Immunomodulatory Effects
			3.1.3 Antitumor Activity
			3.1.4 Regulation of Lipid Metabolism
			3.1.5 Regulation of Glucose Metabolism
			3.1.6 Antiviral Effect
		3.2 Sea Cucumber Fucoidan (SC-FUC)
			3.2.1 Improvement of Liver Function
			3.2.2 Regulation of Glucose Metabolism
			3.2.3 Antitumor Effects
			3.2.4 Prevention and Treatment of Gastric Ulcer
		3.3 Characteristics of Digestion and Absorption
	4 Sea Cucumber Lipid
		4.1 Sea Cucumber Phospholipids
			4.1.1 Brain Function
			4.1.2 Prevention of Metabolic Syndrome
			4.1.3 Others
				4.1.3.1 Alleviation of Renal Injury
				4.1.3.2 Anti-Chronic Fatigue Effect
			4.1.4 Digestion and Absorption
		4.2 Cerebroside
			4.2.1 Antitumor Effect
			4.2.2 Prevention of Metabolic Syndrome
			4.2.3 Brain Function
			4.2.4 Others
			4.2.5 Digestion and Absorption of Cerebroside
		4.3 Sea Cucumber Gangliosides
		4.4 Sea Cucumber Sterol
			4.4.1 Modulation of Lipid Metabolism
				4.4.1.1 Improving Hyperlipidemia
				4.4.1.2 Inhibiting Hepatic Lipogenesis and Promoting Fatty Acid β-Oxidation
				4.4.1.3 Reducing Inflammation in Adipose Tissue
				4.4.1.4 Regulating Cholesterol Metabolism and Reducing Atherosclerosis
				4.4.1.5 Promoting Dissimilation of Cholesterol
			4.4.2 Regulation of Glucose Metabolism
			4.4.3 Digestive Absorption and Tissue Distribution
		4.5 Other Fatty Acids
	5 Sea Cucumber Saponins
		5.1 Antitumor Activity
			5.1.1 Antitumor Mechanism of Sea Cucumber Saponins
		5.2 Improvement of Metabolic Syndrome
			5.2.1 Regulating Glucose Metabolism
			5.2.2 Improving Hypertension
			5.2.3 Improving Hyperlipidemia
			5.2.4 Improving Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
			5.2.5 Inhibiting Fat Accumulation
			5.2.6 Improving Hyperuricemia
			5.2.7 Regulating Rhythm
		5.3 Promotion of Bone Marrow Hematopoietic Function
		5.4 Improvement of Immunity
		5.5 Antibacterial and Antivirus Effects
		5.6 Other Activities
		5.7 Metabolism of Sea Cucumber Saponins
	6 Other Functional Ingredients
	7 Conclusion
	References
Traditional Processing Techniques and Products of Sea Cucumber: Historical Review
	1 Introduction
	2 Traditional Processing Methods of Sea Cucumber all over the World
		2.1 Historical Records of sea Cucumber Processing Methods
		2.2 Processing Techniques Used for Global Trade of Sea Cucumbers
	3 Traditional Sea Cucumber Products and their Processing Techniques Developed in China
		3.1 Semi-Dried Sea Cucumber
		3.2 Dried Sea Cucumber
			3.2.1 Plant Ash-Pretreated Dried Sea Cucumber
			3.2.2 Salt-Pretreated Dried Sea Cucumber
	4 Conclusion and Prospects
	References
The Pretreatment Technology of Raw Sea Cucumber and New Processing Technology of Salted Sea Cucumber
	1 Introduction
	2 Processing Techniques of Sea Cucumber Preprocessing
		2.1 Cleaning Method of Sea Cucumber
		2.2 Slaughter Method of Sea Cucumber
	3 Processing Techniques of Sea Cucumber Cooking
		3.1 Traditional Cooking Technique
			3.1.1 Continuous Cooking
			3.1.2 Batch Cooking
		3.2 New Cooking Technique
			3.2.1 Steam Curing
			3.2.2 Low-Temperature Cooking
			3.2.3 High-Pressure Cooking
			3.2.4 Low-Temperature Vacuum Cooking
			3.2.5 Low-Temperature Steam Curing
			3.2.6 Microwave Curing
		3.3 Effects of Different Cooking Methods on the Quality of Sea Cucumber
	4 Processing Technique of Sea Cucumber Salting
		4.1 Salting Method
			4.1.1 Liquid Immersion and Salting
			4.1.2 Salt Particles Covering and Salting
		4.2 Quality Control of Salted Sea Cucumber
		4.3 Relevant Standards of Salted Sea Cucumber
	5 Processing Machinery for Sea Cucumber Preprocessing and Salting
		5.1 Processing Machinery for Sea Cucumber Preprocessing
		5.2 Processing Machinery for Sea Cucumber Salting
		5.3 Other Machinery and Instruments
	6 Future R&D Trends in Sea Cucumber Processing Techniques for Preprocessing and Salting
	7 Conclusion
	References
The New Processing Technology of Dried Sea Cucumber Products
	1 Introduction
	2 Predrying Processing of Sea Cucumbers
		2.1 Regular Predrying Processing
		2.2 Preprocessing Before Special Drying
			2.2.1 Predrying Processing of Freeze-Dried Sea Cucumbers
			2.2.2 Other Special Predrying Processing of Sea Cucumbers
	3 Sea Cucumber Processing by Single Drying Method
		3.1 Hot Air Drying of Sea Cucumbers
		3.2 Sea Cucumber Freeze-Drying
		3.3 Microwave Drying of Sea Cucumbers
		3.4 Cold Air Drying of Sea Cucumbers
		3.5 Quality Comparison of Dried Sea Cucumbers Processed by Different Single Drying Methods
	4 Combined Drying Method of Sea Cucumbers
		4.1 Combined Heat Pump-Hot Air Drying Technology of Sea Cucumbers
		4.2 Combined Hot Air-Microwave Vacuum Drying of Sea Cucumbers
		4.3 Combined Heat Pump-Microwave Drying of Sea Cucumbers
		4.4 Combined Freeze-Microwave Drying of Sea Cucumbers
	5 Conclusion
	References
Ready-to-Eat Sea Cucumber Products and Collagen Stabilization Technology
	1 Introduction
	2 Processing of RTE Sea Cucumber
		2.1 Categories of RTE Sea Cucumber
			2.1.1 RTE Sea Cucumber
			2.1.2 High-Pressure Cooked Frozen Sea Cucumber
			2.1.3 Rehydrated Sea Cucumber
			2.1.4 Canned Sea Cucumber
			2.1.5 Fast-to-Rehydrate Dried Sea Cucumber
		2.2 Processing Technology of RTE Sea Cucumber
			2.2.1 Requirements for Raw Materials
			2.2.2 Temporary Cultivation
			2.2.3 Selection
			2.2.4 Cleaning
			2.2.5 Laparotomy and Evisceration
			2.2.6 Cleaning and Finishing
			2.2.7 Blanching
			2.2.8 Flavor Soaking
			2.2.9 High-Temperature Short-Time Sterilization
			2.2.10 Vacuum Cooling
			2.2.11 Packaging
			2.2.12 Stepwise Secondary Sterilization
		2.3 Effects of Processing on Nutrient Content and Sensory Quality of RTE Sea Cucumber
			2.3.1 Effects on Some Nutritional Components of RTE Sea Cucumber
			2.3.2 Effects on Amino Acid Content of RTE Sea Cucumber
			2.3.3 Effects on Fatty Acid Composition of RTE Sea Cucumber
			2.3.4 Effects on Texture of RTE Sea Cucumber
	3 Quality Changes of RTE Sea Cucumber During Storage
		3.1 Changes of Texture Characteristics of RTE Sea Cucumber During Storage
		3.2 Microstructure Changes of RTE Sea Cucumber During Storage
		3.3 Changes of Ammonia Nitrogen and Free Hydroxyproline Content in RTE Sea Cucumber During Storage
		3.4 Changes of Water State of RTE Sea Cucumber During Storage
	4 Effects of Cross-Linking on the Stability of RTE Sea Cucumber During Storage
		4.1 Effects of Glutamine Aminotransferase on the Stability of RTE Sea Cucumber
		4.2 Effects of Plant Polyphenols on the Stability of RTE Sea Cucumber
		4.3 Effects of Other Cross-Linkers on the Stability of RTE Sea Cucumber
	5 Study on the Stabilization Mechanism of Cross-Linking on Collagen of RTE Sea Cucumber
		5.1 Study on the Structure and Stability of Sea Cucumber Collagen
		5.2 Effects of Endogenous and Exogenous Factors on Collagen Stability of Sea Cucumber
		5.3 Mechanism of Cross-Linking and Stabilizing Sea Cucumber Collagen
	6 Conclusion
	References
The Extraction, Separation Technology, and New Product Development of Sulfated Polysaccharides from Sea Cucumber
	1 Introduction
	2 Extraction of Sea Cucumber Polysaccharides
		2.1 Release of Sea Cucumber Polysaccharides
			2.1.1 Enzymatic Extraction
			2.1.2 Alkaline Extraction
			2.1.3 Hot Water Extraction
			2.1.4 Ultrasonic-Assisted Extraction
			2.1.5 Microwave-Assisted Extraction
			2.1.6 Other Methods
		2.2 Separation of Sea Cucumber Polysaccharides
			2.2.1 Precipitation
			2.2.2 Separation Membrane
	3 Refining of Sea Cucumber Polysaccharides
		3.1 Protein Removal
		3.2 Depigmentation
	4 Purification of Sea Cucumber Polysaccharides
		4.1 Ion Exchange Column Chromatography
		4.2 Gel Column Chromatography
		4.3 Other Methods
	5 Sea Cucumber Polysaccharide Products
		5.1 Sea Cucumber Polysaccharide Products on the Market
		5.2 Patents
	6 Conclusion
	References
The Extraction, Separation Technology, and New Product Development of Functional Lipids from Sea Cucumber
	1 Introduction
	2 Extraction and Separation Technologies of Sea Cucumber Oil
		2.1 Solvent Extraction
		2.2 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
		2.3 Subcritical Fluid Extraction
	3 Extraction and Separation Technologies of Sea Cucumber Phospholipids
		3.1 Extraction and Separation Technologies of Total Phospholipids
			3.1.1 Solvent Extraction
			3.1.2 Silica Gel Column Chromatography
		3.2 Extraction and Separation Technologies of Plasmalogen
			3.2.1 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
			3.2.2 Silica Gel Column Chromatography
		3.3 Extraction and Separation Technologies of Lysophospholipids
	4 Extraction and Separation Technologies of Sea Cucumber Sphingolipids
		4.1 Extraction and Separation Technologies of Cerebroside
			4.1.1 High-Speed Countercurrent Chromatography
			4.1.2 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
			4.1.3 Column Chromatography
			4.1.4 Preparative Liquid Chromatography
		4.2 Extraction and Separation Technologies of Gangliosides
		4.3 Extraction and Separation Technologies of Ceramide
		4.4 Extraction and Separation Technologies of Long-Chain Base
	5 Extraction and Separation Technologies of Sterol Sulfate from Sea Cucumber
		5.1 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE)
		5.2 Column Chromatography
	6 Development of Sea Cucumber Lipid-Related Products
		6.1 Soft Capsule of Sea Cucumber Oil
		6.2 Microcapsules of Sea Cucumber Oil
		6.3 Sea Cucumber-Related Drinks
		6.4 Lipsticks
		6.5 Sea Cucumber Oil-Based Soaps
		6.6 Feed
	7 Conclusion
	References
The Extraction, Separation Technology, and New Product Development of Collagen Peptides from Sea Cucumber
	1 Introduction
	2 Extraction and Separation of Sea Cucumber Collagens
		2.1 Extraction and Separation of Sea Cucumber Collagen Fibrils
		2.2 Extraction and Separation of Solubilized Sea Cucumber Collagens
		2.3 Purification of Solubilized Sea Cucumber Collagens
	3 Extraction and Separation of Sea Cucumber Collagen Peptides
		3.1 Pretreatment of Sea Cucumber Collagens
		3.2 Degradation of Sea Cucumber Collagens
			3.2.1 Enzymatic Hydrolysis Method
			3.2.2 Other Methods
		3.3 Refinement of Sea Cucumber Collagen Peptides
		3.4 Purification of Sea Cucumber Collagen Peptides
			3.4.1 Membrane Separation Technology
			3.4.2 Gel Filtration Chromatography
			3.4.3 Ion Exchange Chromatography
			3.4.4 Reverse Phase Chromatography
	4 Quality Control of Sea Cucumber Collagens and Collagen Peptides
	5 New Product Development of Sea Cucumber Collagens and Collagen Peptides
		5.1 Food and Functional Food Product Development
		5.2 Cosmetic Product Development
		5.3 Biomedical Material Product Development
	6 Conclusion
	References
The Quality Management Systems and Standards of Sea Cucumber Products
	1 Introduction
	2 Identification of Sea Cucumber Species
		2.1 Mitochondrial Sequence for Identifying Sea Cucumber Species
		2.2 Identification of Sea Cucumber Species Based on DNA Barcoding
			2.2.1 Dotblot
			2.2.2 Multiplex-PCR
			2.2.3 PCR-RFLP
		2.3 Identification of Sea Cucumber Species Based on Fatty Acid Composition
		2.4 Identification of Sea Cucumber Species Based on Polysaccharide Structure
	3 Geographical Origin Traceability Technology of Sea Cucumber
		3.1 Microbiomics (Gut Microbiota) Analysis
		3.2 Lipidomics Analysis
		3.3 Proteomic Analysis
		3.4 Stable Isotope Analysis
		3.5 Analysis of Element Composition
	4 Determination of Functional Components of Sea Cucumber
		4.1 Determination of Sulfated Polysaccharide Content of Sea Cucumber
		4.2 Determination of Sea Cucumber Cerebroside and Ceramide
		4.3 Determination of Sea Cucumber Gangliosides
		4.4 Determination of Sea Cucumber Saponins
	5 Quality Standard System of Sea Cucumber Products
		5.1 Quality Standard System of Sea Cucumber in China
			5.1.1 National and Industrial Standards of Sea Cucumber
			5.1.2 Product Standards of Sea Cucumber
			5.1.3 Processing and Cooking Standards of Sea Cucumber
			5.1.4 Standards for Testing Methods of Sea Cucumber and Its Products
			5.1.5 Development Direction of Sea Cucumber Product Standards
		5.2 Quality Standard System of Sea Cucumber in Other Countries
	6 Summary and Outlook
	References
Food Safety Issues and Regulatory Requirements of Sea Cucumber Products and Their Internationalization
	1 Introduction
	2 Edible Safety of Sea Cucumber Products
		2.1 Microorganisms and Diseases
		2.2 Antibiotics or Veterinary Drugs
		2.3 Heavy Metals
		2.4 Microplastics
		2.5 Crude Oil Pollution
		2.6 Illegal Additives During Processing
	3 Development Trend of Sea Cucumber Processing
		3.1 Development Trend of Processing Technology
		3.2 International Prospects of Sea Cucumber Products
	4 Conclusion
	References