Advanced Surveying - Total Station, GPS, GIS and Remote Sensing

Cover
Copyright
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
About the Authors
CHAPTER 1 Fundamental Concepts of Geographic Information System
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Various Definitions of GIS
	1.3 Ordinary Mapping to GISs
	1.4 Comparison of GIS with CAD and Other Systems
		1.4.1 Land Information System
		1.4.2 Automated Mapping and Facility Management
		1.4.3 GIS-T
	1.5 GIS Architecture (GIS Subsystems)
		1.5.1 Data Input
		1.5.2 Data Storage and Retrieval
		1.5.3 Data Manipulation and Analysis
		1.5.4 Data Output
	1.6 Components of a GIS
		1.6.1 Hardware
		1.6.2 Software
		1.6.3 Data
		1.6.4 People
		1.6.5 Methods
	1.7 The Four Ms
	1.8 GIS Work Flow
	1.9 Fundamental Operations of GIS
	1.10 Levels of Use of a GIS
	1.11 Objective of GIS
	1.12 The Theoretical Framework of a GIS
	1.13 Accuracy in a GIS
	1.14 Data Exploration
	1.15 Thematic Layering
	1.16 Levels of Measurement in GIS
	1.17 Categories of GIS
	1.18 Topology
		Review Questions
CHAPTER 2 GIS Data Models
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 GIS Data Types
		2.2.1 Spatial Data
		2.2.2 Attribute Data
	2.3 Spatial Data Models
	2.4 Vector Data Model
	2.5 Raster Data Model
	2.6 Image Data
	2.7 Vector and Raster—Advantages and Disadvantages
	2.8 Attribute Data Models
		2.8.1 Tabular Model
		2.8.2 Hierarchical Model
		2.8.3 Network Model
		2.8.4 Relational Model
		2.8.5 Object-Oriented Model
	2.9 Digital Elevation Model
		2.9.1 The Availability of DEM Data
	2.10 Digital Elevation Models and Geographic Information Systems
	2.11 Applications of DEM
		2.11.1 Scientific Applications
		2.11.2 Commercial Applications
		2.11.3 Industrial Applications
		2.11.4 Operational Applications
	2.12 Data Structure for Continuous Surface Model
		Review Questions
CHAPTER 3 Data Acquisition
	3.1 Data Acquisition in Geographic Information System
	3.2 Analog Maps
	3.3 Aerial Photographs
	3.4 Satellite Imagery
	3.5 Ground Survey
	3.6 Global Positioning System
	3.7 Reports and Publications
	3.8 Digitizers (for Vector Data Input)
		3.8.1 The Map Digitizing Operation
		3.8.2 Major Problems of Map Digitization
		3.8.3 Advantages of Digitized Storage
	3.9 Scanners (for Raster Data Input)
	3.10 Digital Mapping by Aerial Photogrammetry
	3.11 Remote Sensing with Satellite Imagery
	3.12 Rasterization
	3.13 Vectorization
	3.14 Advanced Technologies for Primary Data Acquisition
	3.15 Digital Mapping by Aerial Photogrammetry
	3.16 Digital Data Acquisition
	3.17 Data Processing
		3.17.1 Media Conversion
		3.17.2 Geographic Data Conversion
		3.17.3 Registration/Coordinate Transformation
		3.17.4 Tiling and Edge Matching
	3.18 Digitizing Issues
	3.19 Functions of GIS
		3.19.1 Compilation
		3.19.2 Storage
		3.19.3 Manipulation
		3.19.4 Output
	3.20 Spatial Data Relationships
	3.21 Topologic Data
	3.22 Comparison of Analog Map versus Digital Map
		Review Questions
CHAPTER 4 Maps and Map Projections
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Types of Maps
		4.2.1 Cadastral Maps
		4.2.2 Topographic Maps
		4.2.3 Thematic Maps
		4.2.4 Remotely Sensed Images
	4.3 Scale of a Map
	4.4 Representing the Scale of a Map
	4.5 Map Symbols
	4.6 Uses of Maps
	4.7 Characteristics of Maps
	4.8 Map Projection
	4.9 An Ideal Map Projection
	4.10 Projection Characteristics
		4.10.1 Features of Various Projections
	4.11 The Standard Parallel and Standard Meridian
	4.12 Different Map Projections
		4.12.1 Map Projection According to the Development of Surface
		4.12.2 Map Projection According to the Method of Deviation (Source of Light)
		4.12.3 Map Projection According to the Global Properties
	4.13 Construction of Map Projection
	4.14 Cylindrical Map Projection
		4.14.1 Cylindrical Map Projection Characteristics
		4.14.2 Types of Cylindrical Projection
	4.15 Conical Projections
		4.15.1 Properties of Conical Projection
	4.15.2 Equidistant Conic Projection
		4.15.3 Simple Conic
		4.15.4 Lambert Conformal Conic Projection
	4.16 Azimuthal Projections
		4.16.1 Normal Azimuthal Projections
		4.16.2 The Gnomonic Projection
		4.16.3 Stereographic Projection
		4.16.4 Orthographic Projection
		4.16.5 Equidistant Projection
		4.16.6 Lambert Equivalent Projection
		Review Questions
CHAPTER 5 The Coordinate System
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Plane Coordinate Systems
	5.3 Plane Cartesian Coordinates
	5.4 Plane Polar Coordinates
	5.5 Cartesian 3D Coordinate Systems
	5.6 Geographic Coordinate Systems
	5.7 Projected Coordinate Systems
		5.7.1 The Elevation
	5.8 Astronomical Coordinate Systems
	5.9 Geoid and Reference Ellipsoids
	5.10 Cartography
		5.10.1 Traditional Cartography
		5.10.2 Computer Cartography
	5.11 GPS Mapping
	5.12 Transformation Methods
		5.12.1 Analytical Transformation
		5.12.2 Direct Transformation by the Grid-on-Grid Method
		5.12.3 Numerical Transformation Methods
	5.13 Factors Influencing the Choice of Suitable Map ­Projections
		Review Questions
CHAPTER 6 Spatial Analysis
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Classification of Analytic Functions of a GIS
		6.2.1 Measurement, Retrieval and Classification Functions
		6.2.2 Spatial Selection Queries
		6.2.3 Classification
	6.3 Overlay Function
		6.3.1 Vector Overlay
		6.3.2 Raster Overlay
		6.3.3 Arithmetic Operators
		6.3.4 Logical Operators
	6.3.5 Neighbourhood Function
	6.4 Network Analysis
		Review Questions
CHAPTER 7 Application of GIS
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Some Applications of GIS
		7.2.1 GIS in Environmental Fields
		7.2.2 GIS in Forestry
		7.2.3 GIS in Hydrology
		7.2.4 Military Application
		7.2.5 GIS in Health Management
		7.2.6 GIS in Geology
		7.2.7 GIS in Business
		7.2.8 GIS in Infrastructure and Utilities
		7.2.9 GIS in Land Information
		7.2.10 GIS in Computer Cartography
		7.2.11 GIS in Agriculture
		7.2.12 GIS in Archaeology
		7.2.13 GIS in Fisheries
		7.2.14 GIS in Civil Engineering
		7.2.15 GIS in Transportation Engineering
		7.2.16 GIS in Traffic Engineering
	7.3 GIS Application Areas and User Segments
	7.4 Custom GIS Software Application
		7.4.1 Custom GIS
		7.4.2 User Interface
	7.5 Usability Engineering in the GIS Domain
	7.6 Important GIS User Interface Issues
	7.7 Geographic Visualization
	7.8 Geographic Query Languages
		7.8.1 Compatibility and Portability of Systems
		7.8.2 Future GIS User Interfaces
		7.8.3 Internet Use
		7.8.4 Object Orientation
		7.8.5 Portable Computing
		7.8.6 Real Time Access to High-Resolution Satellite Data
	7.9 Guidelines for the Preparation of a GIS
	7.10 Application of GIS for Land Use and Housing Management
	7.11 Application of GIS in the Assessment of Physical Transformation of an Urban Area
		7.11.1 Land Use and Activities of an Urban Area
		7.11.2 Application of GIS Possibilities and Limitations
	7.12 Application of GIS—Case Studies
		Review Questions
CHAPTER 8 Basics of Total Station
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Advantages of Total Station
	8.3 Disadvantages of Total Station
	8.4 Measuring Angles
	8.5 Types of Total Stations
	8.6 Advancement in Total Station Technology
	8.7 Automatic Target Recognition
	8.8 Imaging Scanning and Robotic Total Station
	8.9 Hybrid Robotic Total Station
	8.10 Reflectorless Measurement
	8.11 Built in Software
		Review Questions
CHAPTER 9 Electronic Distance Measurements
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Measurement Principle of EDM Instrument
		9.2.1 Distance Measurement Technique
		9.2.2 Classification of EDM
	9.3 EDM Instrument Characteristics
		9.3.1 Different Wavelength Bands Used by EDM
	9.4 Errors in EDMs
	9.5 Error Correction in EDMs
	9.6 Zero Correction
		9.6.1 Prism Integer
		9.6.2 Error by Incidence Angle
	9.7 Reflector Used for EDMs
		9.7.1 Prisms Used for EDMs
		9.7.2 Reflector-less EDMs
	9.8 Accuracy in EDMs
	9.9 Field Procedure of EDM
	9.10 Geometry of EDMs
	9.11 EDM without Reflecting Prisms (Reflector Less Measurements)
	9.12 Focussing and Sighting
	9.13 EDM Accuracies
	9.14 Direct Reflex EDM Technology
		9.14.1 Time-of-Flight (Pulsed Laser) Measurement
		9.14.2 Phase-Shift Measurement
		9.14.3 Comparison of the Two Methods
		9.14.4 Laser Safety Standards
		Review Questions
CHAPTER 10 Surveying Using Total Station
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Fundamental Parameters of Total Station
	10.2.1 Parameters for Calculation
		10.2.2 Correction Factors and Constants
	10.3 Precautions to be Taken While Using a Total Station
	10.4 Field Equipment
	10.5 Total Station Set Up
	10.6 Setting Up a Back Sight
	10.7 Azimuth Mark
	10.8 Measurement with Total Station
	10.9 Total Station Initial Setting (General Setting Required for all Models)
	10.10 Field Book Recording
	10.11 Radial Shooting
	10.12 Traverse
	10.13 Survey Station or Shot Location Description Using Codes
	10.14 Occupied Point (Instrument Station) Entries
	10.15 Data Retrieval
	10.16 Field Generated Graphics
	10.17 Construction Layout Using Total Stations
	10.18 Overview of Computerized Survey Data Systems
	10.19 Data Gathering Components
	10.20 Data Processing Components of the System
	10.21 Data Plotting
	10.22 Equipment Maintenance
	10.23 Maintaining Battery Power
	10.24 Total Station Job Planning and Estimating
	10.25 Error Sources of Electronic Theodolite
	10.26 Total Survey System Error Sources and How to Avoid Them
	10.27 Controlling Errors
	10.28 Field Coding
	10.29 Field Computers
	10.30 Modem for Data Transfer (Field to Office)
	10.31 Trigonometric Levelling and Vertical Traversing
	10.32 Trigonometric Levelling—Field Procedures
	10.33 Trigonometric Levelling—Error Sources
	10.34 Application of Total Station
		Review Questions
CHAPTER 11 Data Collection Procedures
	11.1 General
	11.2 Functional Requirements of a Generic Data Collector
	11.3 Data Collection Operating Procedures
	11.4 Responsibility of the Field Crew for Data Collection and Processing
	11.5 Interfacing the Data Collector with a Computer
	11.6 Digital Data
	11.7 Digital Transfer of the Data to Application Software
	11.8 Requirements of a Data Collector
	11.9 Coding of Field Data While Using a Data Collector
	11.10 Summary of Data Collector Field-to-Finish Procedures
	11.11 Data Collection in Modern Total Stations
		Review Questions
CHAPTER 12 Automatic Level, Digital Level and Optical Theodolites
	12.1 Automatic Level
	12.2 Digital Level
		12.2.1 Advantages of Digital Levels
		12.2.2 Components of Digital Level
	12.3 Micro-Optical Theodolites (Micrometre Theodolite)
		12.3.1 General Description of a Micro-Optical Theodolite
		12.3.2 Centering the Theodolite with the Optical Plummet
		12.3.3 Focussing and Sighting
		12.3.4 Reading Angles
		12.3.5 Measuring Single Angles
		12.3.6 Measuring Sets of Directions
		12.3.7 Measuring Vertical Angles
		12.3.8 Measuring Vertical Angles with the Three Wire Method
		12.3.9 Tacheometric Observation
		12.3.10 Horizontal Collimation Error and Its Adjustments
		12.3.11 Vertical Collimation Error (Index Error) and Its Adjustments
	12.4 Digital Planimeter
	12.5 Laser Distance Metre (Laser Range Finder)
		Review Questions
CHAPTER 13 Aerial Surveying
	13.1 General Background
	13.2 Terrestrial Photogrammetry
	13.3 Aerial Photogrammetry
	13.4 Photographing Devices
		13.4.1 Metric Cameras
		13.4.2 Stereo Metric Camera
	13.5 Aerial Photographs
		13.5.1 Information Recorded on Photographs
	13.6 Photographic Scale
	13.7 Photo Interpretation
	13.8 Flying Heights and Altitude
	13.9 Mapping from Aerial Photography
	13.10 Relief Displacement (Radial Displacement)
	13.11 Tilt Displacements
	13.12 Correction of Relief and Tilt
	13.13 Flight Planning
	13.14 Planning Flight Lines and Layout of Photography
	13.15 Coverage of the Photograph
	13.16 Ground Control for Mapping
		13.16.1 Number of Photographs
		13.16.2 Interpretation of Photos
	13.17 Mosaics
	13.18 Stereoscopy
	13.19 Lens Stereoscope and Mirror Stereoscope
	13.20 Parallax
		13.20.1 Parallax Bar and Measurement of Parallax
	13.21 Aerial Triangulation
	13.22 Radial Triangulation
		13.20.1 The Slotted Template Method
		13.20.2 Radial Line Plotter
	13.23 Photogrammetric Techniques
		13.23.1 Mapping from a Single Photograph
		13.23.2 Stereo Photogrammetry
		13.23.3 Mapping from Several Photographs
	13.24 Photogrammetric Stereoscopic Plotting Techniques
	13.25 LIDAR
	13.26 Applications of LIDAR
	13.27 Hyperspectral Imagery
	13.28 Orthophoto
		Review Questions
CHAPTER 14 Fundamentals of Remote Sensing
	14.1 Concept of Remote Sensing
	14.2 Principles of Remote Sensing
	14.3 Components of Remote Sensing
	14.4 Seven Elements in Remote Sensing
	14.5 Characteristics of Electromagnetic Radiation
	14.6 Electromagnetic Spectrum
		14.6.1 IR Region and Wein’s Displacement Law
	14.7 Transmission Path
		14.7.1 Atmospheric Windows
		14.7.2 Scattering of Electromagnetic Radiation
	14.8 Platforms
		14.8.1 Ground-Based Platforms
		14.8.2 Aerial Platforms
		14.8.3 Satellite Platforms
	14.9 Types of Remote Sensing
	14.10 Passive Remote Sensing
		14.10.1 Thematic Mapper
	14.11 Active Remote Sensing
		14.11.1 Doppler Radar
		14.11.2 Precipitation Radar
	14.12 Thermal IR Remote Sensing
		14.12.1 Stefan–Boltzmann Law and Temperature–Energy Relationships
	14.13 Detectors
	14.14 Thermal IR Imaging
	14.15 Applications of Thermal IR Imaging
	14.16 Imaging with Microwave Radar (Microwave Remote Sensing)
	14.17 Radiometry and Photometry
	14.18 Black Body Radiation
	14.19 Reflectance
	14.20 Remote Sensing Systems
	14.21 Scanner
		14.21.1 Across–Track (Whiskbroom) Scanners
		14.21.2 Along-Track (Push-Broom) Scanners
	14.22 Multispectral Scanner
	14.23 Electro-optical Sensors
	14.24 Signature
	14.25 Resolution and GRE
	14.26 Pixel Size and Scale
	14.27 Satellite Orbital Characteristics, and Swaths
	14.28 Instantaneous Field of View
	14.29 Major Satellite Programmes
	14.30 Weather Monitoring Satellite Sensors
	14.31 The Principle Steps Used in Remotely Sensed Data Analysis
	14.32 Data Reception, Transmission, and Processing
	14.33 Interpretation and Analysis
		14.33.1 Manual and Digital Interpretation
	14.34 Elements of Visual Interpretation
	14.35 Digital Image Processing
		14.35.1 Preprocessing
		14.35.2 Image Enhancement
		14.35.3 Image Transformations (Multiimage Manipulation)
		14.35.4 Image Classification and Analysis
		14.35.5 Data Integration and Analysis
	14.36 Remote Sensing in India
		14.36.1 Remote Sensing Satellites of India
		14.36.2 Data from IRS Satellites
		14.36.3 NNRMS
		14.36.4 Advanced Remote Sensing Satellites
		Review Questions
CHAPTER 15 Basics of Global Positioning System
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Overview of GPS
	15.3 GPS Segments
	15.3.1 The Space Segment
		15.3.2 The Control Segment
		15.3.3 The User Segment
	15.4 Satellite Ranging
	15.5 Pseudo-Range and Pseudo-Random Code
	15.6 GPS Broadcast Message and Ephemeris Data
	15.7 Time Calculation
	15.8 Position Calculation
	15.9 Positioning Services
		15.9.1 SPS
		15.9.2 PPS
	15.10 Current GPS Satellite Constellation
	15.11 GPS Errors and Their Corrections
		15.11.1 Ephemeris Errors and Orbit Perturbations
		15.11.2 Clock Stability
		15.11.3 Ionospheric Delays
		15.11.4 Troposphere Delays
		15.11.5 Signal Multipath
		15.11.6 Satellite and Receiver Clock Errors
		15.11.7 Selective Availability
		15.11.8 Anti-Spoofing (A-S)
		15.11.9 Receiver Noise
	15.12 User Equivalent Range Error
		15.12.1 Geometric Dilution of Precision
		15.12.2 Positional Dilution of Precision
		15.12.3 Horizontal Dilution of Precision
		15.12.4 Vertical Dilution of Precision VDOP
	15.13 Pseudo-Range Observation Equation
	15.14 Carrier Phase Observation Equation
	15.15 Mask Angle
		Review Questions
CHAPTER 16 Surveying Using Global Positioning System
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Difference between GPS Navigation and GPS Surveying
	16.3 Characteristics of GPS Surveying and GPS Navigation
	16.4 Accuracy Requirements in GPS Surveying
	16.5 Absolute and Relative Positioning
	16.6 Absolute Positioning with the Carrier Phase
	16.7 Pseudo-ranging
	16.8 Differential Positioning
	16.9 Differential Pseudo-Range Positioning (Differential Code-Based Positioning)
	16.10 Differential Positioning (Carrier Phase Tracking)
	16.11 Ambiguity Resolution
	16.12 General Field Survey Procedures for Surveying Using GPS
	16.13 Absolute Point Positioning
		16.13.1 Navigation Receivers
		16.13.2 Mapping Grade GPS Receivers
	16.14 Different Methods Used in GPS Surveying (Differ­ential Positioning by Carrier Phase Tracking)
		16.14.1 GPS Antenna for Absolute and Relative Measurements
	16.15 Important Points for a GPS Survey Solution
	16.16 Static Surveying Method
		16.16.1 Equipment for Instrument Station for Static Surveying
		16.16.2 Static Survey Methodology
		16.16.3 Static Survey Field Procedures
		16.16.4 General Checklist for Onsite Procedures
		16.16.5 General Check List for Monitoring the GPS Receiver While Surveying
		16.16.6 Applications of Static Method of Survey
	16.17 Rapid Static or Fast Static Method
		16.17.1 Reoccupation Mode in Rapid Static Survey
	16.18 The Stop-and-Go Technique in Kinematic Method
		16.18.1 Antenna Swap Calibration Procedure
	16.19 Kinematic Surveying Method (True Kinematic)
	16.20 Pseudo-Kinematic GPS Survey
	16.21 Kinematic On-the-Fly (OTF)
	16.22 Real-Time Kinematic Surveying (RTK)
	16.23 Real-Time Differential GPS Code Phase Horizontal Positioning GPS
	16.24 Office Procedures after Data Collection
	16.25 Post-Processing of Differential GPS Data
	16.26 Differential Reduction Technique
		16.26.1 Single Differencing between Receivers
		16.26.2 Single Differencing between Satellites
		16.26.3 Single Differencing between Epochs
		16.26.4 Double Differencing
		16.26.5 Triple Differencing
	16.27 Baseline Solution by Cycle Ambiguity Recovery
	16.28 Baseline Processing
	16.29 Standard GPS Data Format
		16.29.1 RINEX Format
		16.29.2 The RTCM SC-104 Message Format
		16.29.3 NMEA Format
	16.30 Accuracy of GPS Height Differences
	16.31 Topographic Mapping with GPS
	16.32 Cycle Slip
	16.33 Latency
	16.34 GPS Augmentation
		16.34.1 Ground-Based Augmentation System
		16.34.2 Satellite-Based Augmentation System
	16.35 Wide Area Augmentation System
	16.36 European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service
	16.37 MTSAT Satellite-Based Augmentation Navigation System
	16.38 GPS-Aided GEO Augmented Navigation System
	16.39 Global Navigation Satellite System
	16.40 GNSS Classification
	16.41 Early Ground-Based Positioning Systems
	16.42 Need for GNSS
		Review Questions
Appendix A: Basic Geodetic Aspects
Appendix B: Sample Equipment Procedure of Various Equipment
Appendix C: Sokkia Total Station CX Series, Field Procedure
Appendix D: Topcon Total Station GTS/100N, Cygnus, Set0n Series
Index