Advanced Dairy Chemistry, Volume 3: Lactose, Water, Salts and Minor Constituents

Preface to the Fourth Edition
Preface to the Third Edition
Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the First Edition
Contents
Contributors
Chapter 1: Lactose: Occurrence, Properties, Reactions, and Significance
	1.1 General Introduction and History
	1.2 Lactose Biosynthesis and Functions in Milk
	1.3 Properties and Reactions
	1.4 Production and Uses of Lactose and Lactose Derivatives
	1.5 Biological, Technological, and Nutritional Significance of Lactose
	1.6 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 2: Solid and Liquid States of Lactose
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 State Diagram of Lactose
	2.3 Stickiness and Caking
	2.4 Crystallization and Recrystallization
	2.5 Crystallization and Recrystallization in Frozen Materials
	2.6 Deliquescence of Lactose
	References
Chapter 3: Significance of Lactose in Dairy Products
	3.1 Significance of Lactose in Dairy Products: Ice Cream
		3.1.1 Overview of Ice Cream Ingredients and Manufacture
		3.1.2 Sources of Lactose in Ice Cream
		3.1.3 Contribution of Lactose to Freezing Point Depression
		3.1.4 Potential for Lactose Crystallisation
		3.1.5 Development of Lactose-Reduced Products
	3.2 Lactose in Dulce de Leche
		3.2.1 Introduction
		3.2.2 Technology
		3.2.3 Significance of Lactose in Dulce de Leche
			3.2.3.1 Lactose Mutarotation and Crystallisation
			3.2.3.2 Non-enzymatic Browning Reactions
	3.3 Sweetened Condensed Milk
		3.3.1 Markets
		3.3.2 Processing Considerations
		3.3.3 Manufacture of SCM
			3.3.3.1 Preparatory Steps
			3.3.3.2 Preheat Treatment
			3.3.3.3 Concentration
			3.3.3.4 Homogenisation
			3.3.3.5 Lactose Seeding to Promote Nucleation
			3.3.3.6 Packaging
		3.3.4 Quality
			3.3.4.1 Physico-Chemical Aspects
			3.3.4.2 Microbiological Quality
		3.3.5 Recombined Sweetened Condensed Milk (RSCM)
		3.3.6 Nutritional Considerations
		3.3.7 Future Perspective
	3.4 Significance of Lactose in Milk Powders
		3.4.1 Introduction
		3.4.2 Behaviour of Lactose During Spray-Drying
			3.4.2.1 Measures to Alleviate Hygroscopicity During Processing
			3.4.2.2 Phase Transitions During Drying of Milk
				Glass Transition
		3.4.3 Milk Powder Microstructure
			3.4.3.1 Behaviour of Lactose in Milk Powders
			3.4.3.2 Caking
			3.4.3.3 Stickiness and Caking of Milk Powders
		3.4.4 Process-Based Functionalisation of Lactose-Containing Powders
			3.4.4.1 Instantisation/Agglomeration
			3.4.4.2 Flow Properties
			3.4.4.3 Maillard Reactions
			3.4.4.4 An Innovative Process for the Production of Permeate Powders
		3.4.5 Ingredient Applications Where the Role of Lactose Is Emphasised
			3.4.5.1 Milk Protein Standardisation
			3.4.5.2 Infant Milk Formula
			3.4.5.3 Chocolate
			3.4.5.4 Role of Lactose as Wall Material During Ingredient Microencapsulation by Spray-Drying
		3.4.6 Conclusion
	3.5 Lactose-Free Milk Products
		3.5.1 Introduction
		3.5.2 Pioneering Market Launch of Low-Lactose Dairy Products: A Case Study
		3.5.3 Technological Processes for the Production of Lactose-Free Dairy
			3.5.3.1 Enzymology
			3.5.3.2 Hydrolysed Lactose Syrups
			3.5.3.3 Low-Lactose Dairy Ingredients–Low-Lactose Milk Re-formulation
			3.5.3.4 Galacto-Oligosaccharides (GOS)
			3.5.3.5 Market Developments for Lactose-Free Dairy
			3.5.3.6 Regulatory and Food Safety Aspects
			3.5.3.7 Determination of Residual Levels of Lactose in Lactose-Free Milk
		3.5.4 Conclusion
	References
		References for Section 3.1
		References for Section 3.2
		References for Section 3.3
		References for Section 3.4
		References for Section 3.5
Chapter 4: Production and Uses of Lactose
	4.1 Theoretical Approach to Production
	4.2 Edible-Grade Lactose
	4.3 Pharmaceutical-Grade Lactose
		4.3.1 Anhydrous Lactose
		4.3.2 Spray-Dried Lactose
	4.4 Uses of Lactose
	4.5 The Future for Lactose
	References
		Website
Chapter 5: Galacto-Oligosaccharides and Other Products Derived from Lactose
	5.1 Introduction
		5.1.1 Overview of Lactose-Derived Compounds and Their Synthesis from Lactose
	5.2 Galacto-Oligosaccharides
		5.2.1 Chemistry
		5.2.2 Synthesis of Oligosaccharides
		5.2.3 Purification
		5.2.4 Properties
		5.2.5 Analysis
		5.2.6 Commercial Producers and Products
		5.2.7 Uses and Applications
		5.2.8 Health Benefits
		5.2.9 Product Safety, Dosage Rates, Regulating Issues
	5.3 Lactulose
		5.3.1 Chemistry
		5.3.2 Synthesis
		5.3.3 Purification
		5.3.4 Properties
		5.3.5 Analysis
		5.3.6 Commercial Producers and Products
		5.3.7 Uses and Applications
			5.3.7.1 Food
			5.3.7.2 Pharmaceutical
		5.3.8 Product Safety, Dosage Rates, Regulatory Issues
	5.4 Tagatose
		5.4.1 Chemistry
		5.4.2 Synthesis
		5.4.3 Properties
		5.4.4 Analysis
		5.4.5 Commercial Producers and Products
		5.4.6 Uses and Applications
		5.4.7 Health Benefits
		5.4.8 Product Safety, Dose Rates and Regulatory Issues
	5.5 Lactobionic Acid
		5.5.1 Chemistry
		5.5.2 Synthesis
		5.5.3 Purification
		5.5.4 Properties
		5.5.5 Analysis
		5.5.6 Commercial Producers and Products
		5.5.7 Uses and Applications
		5.5.8 Health Benefits
		5.5.9 Product Safety, Dose Rates and Regulatory Issues
	5.6 Lactitol
		5.6.1 Chemistry
		5.6.2 Synthesis
		5.6.3 Properties
		5.6.4 Analysis
		5.6.5 Commercial Producers and Products
		5.6.6 Uses and Applications
		5.6.7 Health Benefits
		5.6.8 Product Safety, Dose Rates and Regulatory Issues
	5.7 Lactosucrose
		5.7.1 Chemistry
		5.7.2 Synthesis
		5.7.3 Purification
		5.7.4 Properties
		5.7.5 Analysis
		5.7.6 Producers and Commercial Products
		5.7.7 Uses and Applications
		5.7.8 Health Benefits
		5.7.9 Product Safety, Dose Rates and Regulatory Issues
	5.8 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 6: Lactose Malabsorption
	6.1 The Small Intestine and Digestion of Lactose
	6.2 Lactase and Its Structural Gene, LCT
	6.3 Lactose Intolerance
		6.3.1 Diagnosis of Lactose Malabsorption
	6.4 Worldwide Distribution of Lactase Persistence
	6.5 The Genetic Basis of Lactase Persistence
		6.5.1 Identification of Causal Variants
	6.6 Mechanism of Down-Regulation of LCT
	6.7 Adaptations to Milk Consumption
		6.7.1 Genetic Adaptation
		6.7.2 Cultural Adaptation
		6.7.3 Adaptation of the Gut Microbiome
	6.8 Selection for Lactase Persistence
		6.8.1 Culture-Historical Hypothesis
		6.8.2 Arid Climate Hypothesis
		6.8.3 Calcium Absorption Hypothesis
		6.8.4 Other Hypotheses
	6.9 Health and Medical Considerations
	References
Chapter 7: Milk Oligosaccharides
	7.1 Abbreviations of Carbohydrate Structures
	7.2 Introduction
	7.3 The Chemical Structures of Milk Oligosaccharides
	7.4 Biosynthesis of Milk Oligosaccharides
	7.5 Gastrointestinal Digestion and Absorption of Milk Oligosaccharides
	7.6 Brain-Stimulating Activity by Milk Oligosaccharides
	7.7 Effects of Milk Oligosaccharides on the Gut Microbiota
	7.8 Effects of Milk Oligosaccharides on Obesity
	7.9 Anti-Pathogenic Effect of Milk Oligosaccharides
	7.10 Immunomodulating Effect of Milk Oligosaccharides
	7.11 Influence of Milk Oligosaccharides on Intestinal Cell Properties
	7.12 Separation, Detection, and Quantification of Milk Oligosaccharides
	7.13 Industrial-Scale Strategies to Produce Milk Oligosaccharides
	7.14 Concluding Remarks
	References
Chapter 8: Milk Salts: Technological Significance
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Methods of Analysis
	8.3 Secretion of Milk Salts
	8.4 Factors Influencing the Milk Salts Equilibria
		8.4.1 Temperature
		8.4.2 pH
		8.4.3 Concentration of Milk
		8.4.4 Effects of Ca Sequestrants (Chelating Agents) and Calcium Addition
		8.4.5 High Pressure
	8.5 Impact of Milk Salts on the Buffering Properties of Milk and Dairy Products
	8.6 Interactions Between Milk Salts and Casein
		8.6.1 Introduction
		8.6.2 Casein Micelle Formation
		8.6.3 Nature of Colloidal Calcium Phosphate and Size of Nanoclusters
	8.7 Functional Properties of Milk Products
		8.7.1 Rennet-Induced Gels
		8.7.2 Acid-Induced Milk Gels
		8.7.3 Heat-Induced Whey Protein Gels
		8.7.4 Cold-Set Whey Protein Gels
		8.7.5 Emulsions
		8.7.6 Foaming and Rehydration Properties After Spray Drying
		8.7.7 Stability of Caseins
			8.7.7.1 Ethanol
			8.7.7.2 Heat
		8.7.8 Cheese Texture and Functionality
	8.8 Other Uses/Applications of Milk Salts
	8.9 Concluding Remarks
	References
Chapter 9: Partitioning Milk Constituents
	9.1 Introduction
		9.1.1 The Casein Micelle
	9.2 Partitioning of Milk: Practical Methods
		9.2.1 Introduction
		9.2.2 Methods Used for Partitioning Studies
			9.2.2.1 Dialysis
			9.2.2.2 Ultrafiltration
			9.2.2.3 Ultracentrifugation (UC)
			9.2.2.4 Milk Coagulation
			9.2.2.5 Precipitation Methods: Isoelectric Precipitation and Salting In/Salting Out
		9.2.3 Some Early (Pioneering) Papers on Partitioning
		9.2.4 Other Studies on Mineral Partitioning
		9.2.5 Protein Dissociation from the Casein Micelle
		9.2.6 Effects of Adding Components to Milk
		9.2.7 Modelling Studies
		9.2.8 Summary of This Work and Some Limitations
	9.3 Reversibility
	9.4 More Recent Investigations on Temperature and Other Factors Affecting Partitioning
		9.4.1 Cooling of UF Permeates and Dialysates Obtained at High Temperatures
		9.4.2 Other Observations and Uses for Partitioning Methods
	9.5 Overview of Some Milk Processing Operations Where Changes in Partitioning of Salts and Casein May Occur
		9.5.1 Chilling of Milk
		9.5.2 Freezing of Milk
		9.5.3 Heating of Milk
		9.5.4 Milk Concentration
		9.5.5 Membrane Processing
		9.5.6 Fermentation Processes
		9.5.7 Carbon Dioxide Treatment
		9.5.8 High Pressure Processing (HPP)
		9.5.9 Soya and Other Plant Protein Beverages
	9.6 Further Partitioning Processes
		9.6.1 Foaming of Milk
		9.6.2 Milk Membrane Material and Its Isolation
	9.7 Concluding Remarks
	References
Chapter 10: Vitamins and Minerals in Milk: Levels and Effects of Dairy Processing
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Fat-Soluble Vitamins
		10.2.1 Vitamin A
		10.2.2 Vitamin D
		10.2.3 Vitamin E
		10.2.4 Vitamin K
	10.3 Water-Soluble Vitamins
		10.3.1 Thiamine (Vitamin B1)
		10.3.2 Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)
		10.3.3 Niacin (Vitamin B3)
		10.3.4 Pantothenic Acid (Vitamin B5)
		10.3.5 Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6)
		10.3.6 Biotin (Vitamin B7)
		10.3.7 Folates (Vitamin B9)
		10.3.8 Cobalamin (Vitamin B12)
		10.3.9 Vitamin C
	10.4 Minerals
		10.4.1 Calcium
		10.4.2 Phosphorous
		10.4.3 Magnesium
		10.4.4 Sodium and Chloride
		10.4.5 Potassium
	10.5 Trace Elements
		10.5.1 Iron
		10.5.2 Zinc
		10.5.3 Copper
		10.5.4 Selenium
		10.5.5 Iodine
		10.5.6 Manganese
		10.5.7 Molybdenum
		10.5.8 Fluoride
		10.5.9 Chromium
		10.5.10 Boron
		10.5.11 Other Trace Minerals in Milk
	10.6 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 11: Water in Dairy Products
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Chemical and Physical Properties of Pure Water
		11.2.1 Polarity and Hydrogen Bonding
		11.2.2 Vapour Pressure
	11.3 General Properties of Water in Dairy Products
		11.3.1 Water Activity
		11.3.2 Water Mobility
		11.3.3 Water Sorption
		11.3.4 Glass Transition
		11.3.5 Water Mobility
		11.3.6 Ice Formation
	11.4 Effect of Water on the Physical State of Dairy Products
		11.4.1 State Diagrams
		11.4.2 Plasticisation of Powder Surfaces
		11.4.3 Lactose Crystallisation
		11.4.4 Ice Crystallisation
	11.5 Water during Storage
		11.5.1 Physical Stability
			11.5.1.1 General Physical Stability
			11.5.1.2 Caking and Lactose Crystallisation
			11.5.1.3 Ice Recrystallisation
		11.5.2 Chemical Changes
			11.5.2.1 Arrhenius vs. Diffusion-Controlled Kinetics
			11.5.2.2 Maillard Reaction
			11.5.2.3 Lipid Oxidation
			11.5.2.4 Enzyme Stability and Activity
		11.5.3 Microbiological Stability
	References
Chapter 12: Physical and Physicochemical Properties of Milk and Milk Products
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Size Range of Components in Milk
	12.3 Milk Acidity and Buffering Capacity
		12.3.1 Strong and Weak Acids
		12.3.2 Buffering Capacity and Titratable Acidity
		12.3.3 Redox Potential
	12.4 Colligative Properties
	12.5 Density
		12.5.1 Particulate Materials
		12.5.2 Foams and Aerated Systems
	12.6 Rheological Properties of Milk and Milk Products
		12.6.1 Viscosity
		12.6.2 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids
		12.6.3 Viscosity of Creams and Other High Fat Products
		12.6.4 Concentrated Milk
		12.6.5 Viscoelasticity
			12.6.5.1 Oscillatory Methods
		12.6.6 A Practical Example
	12.7 Surface and Interfacial Properties
		12.7.1 Surface Tension
			12.7.1.1 Surface Tension and Milk Processing
	12.8 Emulsion Stability and Foaming
		12.8.1 Emulsion Stability
		12.8.2 Foaming of Milk
	12.9 Optical Properties of Milk
		12.9.1 Measurement of Milk Colour
		12.9.2 Refractive Index
	12.10 Thermal Properties of Milk
		12.10.1 Specific Heat
		12.10.2 Latent Heat
			12.10.2.1 Latent Heat of Fusion
		12.10.3 Enthalpy and Specific Enthalpy
			12.10.3.1 At Constant Pressure, Enthalpy Changes Are Equivalent to Heat Changes
			12.10.3.2 Enthalpy Tables
		12.10.4 Enthalpy Charts
		12.10.5 How Water Freezes in Milk and Dairy Products
		12.10.6 Thermal Conductivity
		12.10.7 Thermal Diffusivity
	12.11 Electrical Properties
		12.11.1 Electrical Conductivity
		12.11.2 Capacitors and Dielectric Properties
			12.11.2.1 Dielectric Loss Factor
	12.12 Water Activity and Moisture Absorption
	12.13 Powder Properties
		12.13.1 Some Engineering Properties of Powders
			12.13.1.1 Powder Compressibility
			12.13.1.2 Flowability
			12.13.1.3 Jenike Flow Cell and Function
			12.13.1.4 Hydrodynamics of Powders
	12.14 Some Closing Remarks
	References
Index