Adjudicating Climate Change: State, National, and International Approaches

Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Foreword......Page 9
Acknowledgments......Page 11
Adjudicating climate change......Page 13
Introduction......Page 15
1. Overview of Climate Change Science......Page 16
2. International Legal Responses to Climate Change......Page 24
3. Enter, Climate Adjudication......Page 33
Subnational and National Actions......Page 34
International Actions......Page 39
4. The Need for Assessment......Page 40
Part I Subnational Case Studies......Page 43
Introduction......Page 45
1.1. Legislative Efforts......Page 47
1.2. The Administrative Process and Contested Case Proceeding......Page 49
1.3. Litigation before the Minnesota Court of Appeals......Page 52
2.1. Symbolic Regulation and Political Voice......Page 53
2.2. Regulation as Dialogue......Page 56
3. Threats to Industry: Bargaining in the Shadow of Future Regulation......Page 58
Conclusion......Page 60
Introduction......Page 62
1. King Coal In Australia......Page 63
2.1. The Hazelwood Case......Page 64
2.2. The Isaac Plains and Sonoma Mines Case......Page 69
2.3. The Anvil Hill Case......Page 73
3. Climate Change As An Environmental Impact......Page 75
3.1. Standing to Sue......Page 77
3.2. Cumulative and Local Impacts......Page 80
3.3. Indirect Impacts......Page 82
4. Conclusion......Page 84
Introduction......Page 86
1. Genesis – Case Background......Page 90
2. Cities and climate change activism: unlikely bedfellows......Page 94
3. Understanding new international actors: why are u.s. cities tackling climate change?......Page 97
3.1 Urban Theory and Quasi-Realism: Cities as Markets......Page 100
3.2 Liberalism: All Politics Is Local......Page 104
3.3 Constructivism: International Discourse......Page 107
3.4 Institutionalism: Evolving Cooperation......Page 109
4. Conclusion: is a theory necessary?......Page 111
Introduction......Page 113
1. Public Trust as a Macro Approach......Page 114
1.1. Public Trust Law......Page 115
1.2. The Res of the Trust......Page 118
1.3. Co-tenancy Sovereign Interests......Page 120
1.4. The Atmosphere as a Public Trust Asset......Page 122
1.5. The Carbon Fiduciary Obligation......Page 123
1.6. The Inexcusability of Carbon Orphan Shares......Page 127
2. Enforcing the Atmospheric Fiduciary Obligation......Page 128
2.2. A Carbon Accounting......Page 129
2.3. Nested Jurisdictions......Page 132
2.4. An Enforceable Carbon Budget and Recovery Plan......Page 133
2.5. Backstops through Injunctive Relief......Page 135
2.6. Collateral Benefits of Atmospheric Trust Litigation......Page 136
3. Conclusion......Page 138
Part II National Case Studies......Page 141
Introduction......Page 143
1.1. Defensive Uses of Scientific Uncertainty......Page 145
1.2. Debates over Scale......Page 146
1.3. Scale as a Lens on Science and the Law......Page 147
2.1. Actors......Page 148
2.2.1. Standing......Page 149
2.2.2. Substantive Claims......Page 152
3.1. Domestic vs. International......Page 154
3.2. Local vs. State vs. Federal......Page 155
3.3. Public vs. Private......Page 156
4. Concluding Reflections: Strategies for Managing the Confluence......Page 157
Introduction......Page 159
1.1. The Endangered Species Act: Overview......Page 160
1.2.1. Global Warming and Coral Reefs......Page 163
1.2.2. The Decline of Elkhorn and Staghorn Corals......Page 165
1.2.3. From Petition to Listing......Page 166
1.3.1. The Arctic as a Global Warming Hot Spot......Page 168
1.3.2. The Polar Bear in a Warming Arctic......Page 169
1.3.3. From Petition to Listing......Page 171
1.4. The ESA and Global Warming......Page 176
1.4.1. The Listing Process......Page 177
1.4.2. The Consultation Process and the Obligation to Avoid Jeopardy......Page 181
1.4.2. The Take Prohibition......Page 184
2. Conclusion: Wildlife Law as a Surrogate for or Supplement to a National Policy on Greenhouse Gas Regulation......Page 185
Introduction......Page 187
1.1. Decades of Environmental Devastation and Military Repression in the Niger Delta......Page 189
1.2. The Gas Flaring Litigation......Page 192
2.1. The Human Rights Tradition......Page 195
2.2. Security from Climate Change as a Civil and Political Right......Page 199
2.3. The State Action Problem......Page 202
Conclusion......Page 205
Introduction......Page 207
1.1. Existing Climate Change Public Nuisance Cases......Page 209
1.2. Basics of Public Nuisance......Page 210
2. Products Liability......Page 213
2.1. Warning Defects......Page 214
2.2. Design Defects......Page 215
2.3. Negligence, Breach of Duty, and Defenses......Page 217
3.1. Standing......Page 220
3.2.1. Preemption of Federal Common Law Claims......Page 223
3.2.2. Preemption of State Common Law Claims......Page 226
3.3. Justiciability......Page 227
4.1. Generic and Specific Causation......Page 229
4.2. Proximate Causation and the Substantiality Requirement......Page 232
5. Relief in a Climate Change Tort Suit......Page 235
5.1. Standards for Damages and Injunctions......Page 236
5.2. Potential Types of Damages Claims......Page 237
5.3. Restrictions on Damage Recovery......Page 239
5.4. Liability for and Apportionment of Damages......Page 240
6. Conclusion......Page 242
Introduction......Page 244
1. Implications for Liability Insurance of Pending Climate Change Litigation......Page 245
2.1. The History, Nature, and Structure of General Liability Insurance......Page 249
2.2.1. The Breadth of the CGL Insurer's Duty to Defend......Page 250
2.2.2. The Requirement that the Policyholder Submit the Claim to the Insurer for Defense......Page 251
2.3. The Distinction between General Liability and Auto Liability Insurance and the Likely Inapplicability of the Auto Exclusion to the CGL Policy......Page 252
3.1. The Problem of When an Insurer's Responsibility Is "Triggered"
......Page 253
3.2. Lack of an Occurrence/Expected or Intended Injury/Lack of Fortuity......Page 255
3.3. The Number of Occurrences and Available Policy Limits......Page 256
3.4. The Pollution Exclusion......Page 257
3.5. Seeking Recoupment of Defense Costs......Page 259
4. The Economic and Political Implications of Insurer Participation in Climate Change Litigation......Page 260
Part III Supranational Case Studies......Page 267
Introduction......Page 269
1. Overview Of The World Heritage Convention......Page 271
2. Losing World Heritage – The Threat Of Climate Change......Page 273
3. Climate Change Mitigation......Page 274
3.1. The Nature and Extent of State Parties' Obligations 
under Articles 4, 5, and 6......Page 275
3.2. The Mitigation Strategy Required by the World Heritage Convention......Page 279
3.3. The World Heritage Committee's Stance on Mitigation......Page 282
4. Conclusion......Page 284
Introduction......Page 286
1.1.1. Petitioners......Page 289
1.1.2. Respondent......Page 290
1.1.3. Adjudicative Authority......Page 293
1.2.1. U.S. Approach to Greenhouse Gas Emissions......Page 294
1.2.3. Human Rights Violations......Page 295
2. The Inuit Petition as a Bridge?......Page 296
2.1. Dialectics of Substantive Categories: Environmental Protection/Human Rights......Page 297
2.2.1. Indigenous Peoples/Nation-States......Page 298
2.2.2. Local/National/Supranational......Page 299
2.2.3. Private/Public......Page 300
2.3.1. Traditional Law and Culture/International Human Rights......Page 301
2.3.2. Dialogue/Confrontation......Page 302
3. Concluding Reections: Petitions and Progress?......Page 303
Introduction......Page 306
1. Climate Change and the Banks......Page 307
2. Potential Claims to the World Bank Inspection Panel......Page 309
2.1. Filing a Petition......Page 310
2.2.1. Assessing Climate Impacts......Page 312
2.2.2. Evaluating Alternatives......Page 314
2.2.3. Achieving Minimum Emissions Levels......Page 315
2.2.4. Consistency with the UNFCCC and Kyoto......Page 316
3. The IFC/MIGA Compliance Advisor And Ombudsman......Page 317
3.1. Introducing the CAO......Page 318
3.2. Filing a Petition......Page 319
3.3.1. Assessing Climate Impacts......Page 320
3.3.3. Requirements to Mitigate Climate Impacts......Page 321
3.3.4. Measuring and Monitoring GHG Emissions......Page 322
3.4. Conclusions Relating to IFC's Compliance Advisor/Ombudsman......Page 323
4. Mechanisms at Other Financial Institutions......Page 324
5. Conclusion......Page 325
Introduction......Page 328
1. The Potential Impacts Of Climate Change On Fish Species......Page 330
2.1. Overview of UNFSA......Page 335
2.2. UNFSA and Climate Change......Page 338
3.1. Causation......Page 340
3.1.1. General Causation......Page 341
3.1.2 Specific Causation......Page 343
3.2. Reluctance of Dispute Resolution Bodies to Address Climate Change......Page 345
Conclusion......Page 346
Introduction......Page 348
1. Advantages of Litigating Before the International Court of Justice......Page 351
2.1.1. Applicants and Respondents......Page 352
2.1.3. Compulsory Jurisdiction under the Optional Clause......Page 354
2.1.4. Jurisdiction by Way of Independent Treaty......Page 359
2.1.5. Other Procedural and Substantive Issues......Page 361
2.2. Advisory Opinions......Page 362
3.1. General Restatements and Codifications of the Law......Page 364
3.2. Precedent......Page 366
3.3. Treaties and Soft Law Declarations......Page 367
4. Conclusion......Page 369
Introduction......Page 371
1. The Focus on Victims......Page 372
2.1. Implications for Climate Science......Page 374
2.2. Implications for the Climate Negotiations......Page 378
3.1. Promoting the Progressive Development of International Law......Page 381
3.2. Strengthening International Institutions......Page 382
5. Transnational Climate Advocacy Networks......Page 384
Conclusion......Page 385
Introduction......Page 389
1. Rescaling Through Climate Change Litigation......Page 391
2. The Value of Regulatory Rescaling......Page 394
3. The Future of Climate Change Litigation......Page 398
Index......Page 401