A Roadmap to Future Space Connectivity: Satellite and Interplanetary Networks

Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
Contributors
Acronyms
Part I Satellite Communication Technology
1 Millimeter Waves and High-Throughput Satellites: The New Frontier Toward Terabit Connectivity in the Sky
	1.1 Enhanced System Flexibility and Reconfigurability
		1.1.1 Software Defined Networking
		1.1.2 SDN-Enabling Payloads
			1.1.2.1 Flexible and Reconfigurable Payloads
			1.1.2.2 Inter-Satellite Links
	1.2 Spectrum and Dynamic Spectrum Access
		1.2.1 Current and Planned Allocations
		1.2.2 Dynamic Spectrum Access
	1.3 System-Level Capacity Improvement
		1.3.1 Multi User-MIMO
			1.3.1.1 Beam-Centric MIMO
			1.3.1.2 User-Centric MIMO
			1.3.1.3 MIMO Algorithms and Normalisations
			1.3.1.4 Trends and Challenges
		1.3.2 Beam-Hopping
	1.4 Air Interfaces
		1.4.1 Novel Waveforms
		1.4.2 Adaptive Modulation and Coding
		1.4.3 Air Interfaces for HTS in High Mobility Scenarios
		1.4.4 Impact of HW Impairments
	1.5 Feeder Link Evolution to Support
		1.5.1 Smart Gateway Deployment and On-Ground Architecture
		1.5.2 Feeder Link MIMO
	1.6 On-Going/Planned Mission/Services and Mega-Constellations
	1.7 Final Remarks
	References
2 The Role of Satellite in 5G and Beyond
	2.1 Non-Terrestrial Networks Standardization
		2.1.1 3GPP Release 17: The First 5G NTN-Based Standard
		2.1.2 NTN Radio Access Network
			2.1.2.1 Direct User Access
			2.1.2.2 Relay-Based User Access
			2.1.2.3 Multi-Connectivity
			2.1.2.4 Radio Protocol Issues and Adaptations
		2.1.3 5G-Advanced
	2.2 Services
	2.3 System Architectures
		2.3.1 User Segment
		2.3.2 Space Segment
		2.3.3 Ground Segment
	2.4 Applications
	2.5 Research and Development Activities
	References
3 Futuristic Satellite Scenarios in 6G
	3.1 Vision of 6G and Non-Terrestrial Networks
	3.2 Architectural Perspectives of 3D Network in 6G
		3.2.1 3D Network Platforms and Frequency Bands
		3.2.2 Proposed Implementation
	3.3 Localisation and RF Sensing in Satellite Networks
		3.3.1 Satellite Network-Based Localisation
		3.3.2 Satellite Network-Based RF Sensing
	3.4 Design Parameters
		3.4.1 UAV-Based Implementation of Relay Protocol in 3D Networks
			3.4.1.1 Transmission Delay
			3.4.1.2 Session Time
			3.4.1.3 Signal-to-Noise Ratio
			3.4.1.4 Throughput
			3.4.1.5 System Parameters
		3.4.2 UAV-Based Implementation of Radio Unit in 3D Networks
			3.4.2.1 Fronthaul Bandwidth
			3.4.2.2 Theoretical Throughput
			3.4.2.3 Connection Density
			3.4.2.4 Number of Functions
			3.4.2.5 Fronthaul Energy Consumption
	References
4 Quantum Satellite Communications
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Introduction to Quantum Communications
		4.2.1 Superposition
		4.2.2 Multiple Qubits and Entanglement
		4.2.3 Bloch Sphere
		4.2.4 Quantum Computing Gates
			4.2.4.1 Single Qubit Gates
		4.2.5 2 Qubit and Multi-Qubit Gates
		4.2.6 Bell State Measurement
		4.2.7 Entanglement Swapping
		4.2.8 Measurement
		4.2.9 Nondemolition Measurement
	4.3 State of the Art in the Quantum Satellite Communications
		4.3.1 Quantum Key Distribution
		4.3.2 Entanglement Distribution
		4.3.3 Entanglement Based QKD
	4.4 Why Satellite-Based Quantum Communication
	4.5 Recent Trends in Quantum Satellite Communications
		4.5.1 Satellite-to-Ground Communication
		4.5.2 Entanglement with Multiple Satellite Links
		4.5.3 Continuous Variable Entanglement Distribution
		4.5.4 Quantum Information Transfer Through Free Space
			4.5.4.1 Single Photon Transfer along 7000km in Space
			4.5.4.2 Optical Signals Through 38,600km into The Atmosphere
			4.5.4.3 QKD Through Inter-Satellite Free-Space Links
		4.5.5 Breakthrough in Quantum Satellite Communications Around 2017
			4.5.5.1 Satellite-to-Ground QKD and Ground-to-Satellite Quantum State Transfer
		4.5.6 Developments Towards a Global Network
			4.5.6.1 Satellite Based Quantum Intercontinental Network
			4.5.6.2 Global Navigation Satellite System Using Quantum Communication
		4.5.7 Secured Quantum Entanglement-Based Cryptography Demonstration Using Satellites
		4.5.8 Moving Boundaries from Lab to Real World
			4.5.8.1 A 4600km Comprehensive Quantum Communication Network from Space to The Ground
		4.5.9 An Overview of QKD experiments on-Orbit Over the Years
	4.6 Final Remarks
	4.7 Current Limitations in Quantum Satellite Communications
	4.8 Future Works in Quantum Satellite Communications
	References
Part II Systems and Infrastructures
5 Ground and Space Hardware for Interplanetary Communication Networks
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Ground Infrastructure  for Interplanetary Communication Network
		5.2.1 Deep Space Antenna  Architecture
		5.2.2 Uplink and Downlink Chains
		5.2.3 DSN Capabilities
		5.2.4 ESTRACK Capabilities
	5.3 On-Board Equipment for Interplanetary Communication Networks
		5.3.1 S/C TT&C Transponders
		5.3.2 S/C Solid State vs Travelling Wave Tube Amplifiers
		5.3.3 High- Medium and Low Gain Antennas
	5.4 Direct Earth-to-Deep Space RF links vs Multi-Hop Links
		5.4.1 Typical Performances and Limitations of a Direct Link
		5.4.2 Data Relay  Architectures
			5.4.2.1 Data Relay Architectures for Earth Orbiting Users
			5.4.2.2 Next Generation Data Relay Architectures for Earth Orbiting Users
			5.4.2.3 Data Relay Architectures for Deep Space Users
		5.4.3 Multi-Hop Links  Advantages and Architectures
	5.5 Guidelines for System Resources Allocation
		5.5.1 Hardware Resources for a Traditional Single-Hop RF Link
		5.5.2 Hardware Resources for a Relay Satellite
			5.5.2.1 HW Resources for a Q/V EHF Band Link
			5.5.2.2 HW Resources for an Optical Link
		5.5.3 Technology Roadmap
	5.6 Conclusions
	References
6 End-to-End Space System: Engineering Considerations
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Statistical Nature of Onboard Data Generation
	6.3 Statistical Nature of Communication Link
	6.4 Link Optimization, Reliability, and Margin Policy
		6.4.1 Review of Link Analysis Techniques
			6.4.1.1 Link Budgeting Approach
			6.4.1.2 Statistical Link Analysis
			6.4.1.3 Minimum Margin for Link Design and Optimization
			6.4.1.4 Illustrating Examples
			6.4.1.5 Analysis Insight and Concept of Minimum Margin
		6.4.2 ARQ Links for Reliable Communications and Its Statistical Characterization
			6.4.2.1 Summary of Prior Results in ARQ Link Analysis
			6.4.2.2 Statistical ARQ Link Analysis with Unlimited Number of Re-Transmissions
			6.4.2.3 Statistical ARQ Link Analysis of Truncated ARQ with K Re-Transmissions
	6.5 Concluding Remarks
	References
7 Intelligent Space Communication Networks
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 AI Improvements in Satellite Networks
		7.2.1 Communication Resource Allocation
		7.2.2 Security
		7.2.3 Orbital Edge Computing (OEC)
		7.2.4 Remote Sensing
		7.2.5 Space-Air-Ground Integrated Network
		7.2.6 Satellite Operations
	References
8 Technologies and Infrastructures for a Sustainable Space
	8.1 Space Sustainability: The Problem
	8.2 Space Debris Mitigation/Removal
	8.3 Sustainable-by-Design Approach: Enabling Technology
		8.3.1 Concept of Sustainability by Design
		8.3.2 BW/FW Compatibility: Federated Satellite Systems
		8.3.3 BW/FW Compatibility: Joint Communication and Sensing
		8.3.4 Ally Technologies
			8.3.4.1 Softwarization
			8.3.4.2 Autonomy and AI Tools
		8.3.5 Very High-Speed Inter-Satellite/Inter-Layer Links
	8.4 Conclusions
	References
Part III Interplanetary Networking
9 Softwarization in Satellite and Interplanetary Networks
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Computational and Communication Technologies for Massive Space Exploration
		9.2.1 Cloud, Edge, and Fog Computing
		9.2.2 Network Coverage, Network Softwarization, and Network Automation
			9.2.2.1 Virtualization and Softwarization
			9.2.2.2 Backbone Network Technologies for Space Applications
			9.2.2.3 Network Coverage Technologies on Remote Environment
			9.2.2.4 Network Automation
			9.2.2.5 Service Oriented Architecture for Intelligent Network Design
		9.2.3 Internet of Things
		9.2.4 Artificial Intelligence for Space Applications
	9.3 Network Softwarization and In-Network Intelligence for Teleoperation, Telerobotic and Telepresence in Massive Space Exploration
		9.3.1 Teleoperation
		9.3.2 Telerobotic
		9.3.3 Telepresence
		9.3.4 Augmented Telerobotic
	9.4 Teleoperation Using Edge Computing
	References
10 Extraterrestrial Radio Access Network: The Road to Broadband Connectivity on Mars
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 The Current (and Near Future) Picture of Martian Surface Connectivity
	10.3 Martian Communications Supported by Sky Connections
	10.4 LTE Connections Operating on the Mars Soil: Would They Be Practicable?
	10.5 Advanced Solutions Based on 3D NTN and C-RAN
	10.6 Conclusion
	References
Part IV New Space Applications
11 Integration between Communication, Navigation and for Space Applications: Case Study on Lunar Satellite Navigation System with Focus on ODTS Techniques
	11.1 Introduction: From Earth to Space Applications
	11.2 Integrated Communication, Navigation and Sensing Systems for Space: Moon Case Study
		11.2.1 Lunar Communication System Architecture
		11.2.2 Lunar Satellite Navigation System
	11.3 Orbit Determination Techniques for Lunar Satellite Navigation
	11.4 Tracking from Earth or from Earth Orbit
	11.5 Satellite Laser Ranging
	11.6 Very Long Baseline Interferometry
	11.7 High Sensitivity Spaceborn Receiver
	11.8 Multiple Spacecraft Per Antenna Approach in TT&C Design
	11.9 Tracking from Moon or from the Moon Orbit
		11.9.1 Orbit Determination Candidate Configurations and Baseline Concept Introduction
	11.10 Lunar Navigation ODTS System Architecture Baseline
	11.11 Conclusions
	References
12 The Internet-of-Things, the Internet of Remote Things, and the Path Towards the Internet of Space Things
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 3GPP Non-Terrestrial Networks for the IoT
		12.2.1 Innovations of the Latest 3GPP Releases
			12.2.1.1 Release 16
			12.2.1.2 Release 17
			12.2.1.3 Release 18
		12.2.2 Innovation Projects
			12.2.2.1 5G-EMERGE (2022)
	12.3 LPWAN for IoT
	12.4 Open Challenges Towards the Internet of Space Things
		12.4.1 Independent LEO Satellites for IoRT/IoST
			12.4.1.1 LEO Satellites of IoT with and Without ISL
			12.4.1.2 Commercial LEO Constellations for IoT
		12.4.2 Physical Layer
		12.4.3 Medium Access
		12.4.4 Network and Higher Layers
		12.4.5 Edge Computing
	12.5 Conclusions
	References
Epilogue
Index