A Review: Ultrahigh-Vacuum Technology for Electron Microscopes

Cover
A Review: Ultrahigh-Vacuum Technology for Electron Microscopes
Copyright
Contents
About the author
	Profile of the author
	Books by Nagamitsu Yoshimura
Preface
Acknowledgment
A review
Part 1
	Part 1 Adsorption, desorption, diffusion, and outgassing/pumping
		Introduction
	Reviewed papers
	[1-1] “Modeling of outgassing or pumping functions of the constituent elements such as chamber walls and high vacuum pumps”...
		1 Introduction
		2 Modeling of outgassing
		3 Pressure analysis using equivalent vacuum circuit
		4 Conclusion
		References in the paper[1-1]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-2] “Testing performance of diffusion pumps” (Hablanian and Steinherz, 1962)
		Reviewed paper
1
	1 Microstructure and elemental features of stainless-steel surface
	Reviewed papers
	[1-1] “Outgassing characteristics and microstructure of an electropolished stainless steel surface” (Yoshimura, Sato, Adach...
		2 Outgassing characteristics of an electropolished pipe wall
			A After an in situ bakeout
		3 Microstructure and elemental features of stainless-steel surfaces
			A Microstructure
			B Elemental features
		4 Conclusion
		References in the reviewed paper[1-1]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-2] “Outgassing characteristics and microstructure of a “vacuum fired” (1050°C) stainless steel surface” (Yoshimura, Hira...
		2 Microstructure and elemental features
			A Microstructure
			B Elemental features
		3 Vacuum characteristics
		4 Conclusion
		References in the reviewed paper[1-2]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-3] “Outgassing characteristics of electropolished stainless steel” (Tohyama, Yamada, Hirohata, Yamashina, 1990)
		2 Samples and experimental method
		3 Experimental results and discussions
		Reviewed paper
	Related paper
	[1-4] “A review of the stainless steel surface” (Adams, 1983)
		Related paper
2
	2 Characteristics of outgassing from metal surfaces
	Quoted book
	[1-1] “Typical isotherms in the chemisorption of gases on metal-surfaces: equilibrium adsorption” (Redhead, Hobson, and Kor...
		References in quoted book[1-1]
			Quoted book
	Reviewed papers
	[1-2] “Relations between pressure, pumping speed and outgassing rate” (Dayton, 1960)
		2 Semiempirical formulas
		3 Relation among pressure, speed, and outgassing rate
		References in the paper[1-2]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-3] “Outgassing rate of contaminated metal surfaces” (Dayton, 1962)
		2 Equation for the outgassing rate
		References in the paper[1-3]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-4] “The effect of bake-out on the degassing of metals” (Dayton, 1963)
		2 Degassing time at constant temperature
		3 Outgassing rate with variable temperature
		References in the paper[1-4]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-5] “Advantage of slow high-vacuum pumping for suppressing excessive gas load in dynamic evacuation systems” (Yoshimura, ...
		1 Introduction
		2 Transitional phenomena of outgassing
		3 Excessive gas load just after switching over the evacuation mode
			3.1 Advantages of a small bypass valve
		References in the paper[1-5]
			Reviewed papers
	[1-6] “The variation in outgassing rate with the time of exposure and pumping” (Rogers, 1964)
		2 Analysis
		4 First pump-down
		5 Second pump-down
		6 Summary
		References in the paper[1-6]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-7] “Reduction of stainless-steel outgassing in ultra-high vacuum” (Calder and Lewin, 1967)
		2 Theory
			2.1 Effect of temperature on degassing
			2.2 Outgassing after a normal bakeout
			2.3 Permeation rate of atmospheric hydrogen
		2.4 High-temperature bulk degassing in situ
			2.5 High-temperature bulk degassing in a furnace with residual hydrogen pressure
		5 Summary and conclusion
		References in the paper[1-7]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-8] “Estimating the gas partial pressure due to diffusive outgassing” (Santeler, 1992)
		2 Diffusive outgassing—Fick’s law
		References in the paper[1-8]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-9] “Model for the outgassing of water from metal surfaces” (Li and Dylla, 1993)
		4 Final remarks
		References in the paper[1-9]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-10] “True and measured outgassing rates of a vacuum chamber with a reversibly adsorbed phase” (Akaishi, Nagasuga, and Fu...
		Nomenclature
		2 Modeling of pump-down
			A Mass conservation equations
			B Equilibrium and nonequilibrium adsorption isotherms
		C Measured and true outgassing rates
		3 Comparison between theory and experiment
		4 Discussion
			A Approximate expression of np
			B g Dependence of K and p
		References in the paper[1-10]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-11] “Recombination limited outgassing of stainless steel” (Moore, 1995)
		1 Introduction
		2 Method of analysis
			A Measurements by Hseuh and Cui
			B Numeric diffusion calculation
			C Recombination limit
		3 Results of analysis
			A Recombination limited concentration profiles versus bake time
			B Outgassing rate versus time
		4 Discussion
			A Bake efficiency as a function of temperature
			B Vacuum furnace versus in situ bake efficiency
			C Uncertainties in the estimate of outgassing rate
		References in the paper[1-11]
			Reviewed paper
	Related papers
	[1-12] “La désorption sous vide” (Schram, 1963)
		Reviewed paper
	[1-13] “Hydrogen pumping by austenitic stainless steel” (Zajec and Namenič, 2005)
		Reviewed paper
3
	3 Methods for measuring outgassing rates
	Reviewed papers
	[1-1] “Measurement of outgassing rates from materials by the differential pressure rise method” (Yoshimura, Oikawa, and Mik...
		2 Principle of the differential pressure-rise method
		Reviewed paper
	[1-2] “A three-point-pressure method for measuring the gas-flow rate through a conducting pipe” (Hirano and Yoshimura, 1986)
		1 Introduction
		2 Three-point-pressure method
			A Principle
			B Optimization of the measuring system
			C Measurement of gas-flow rates
		3 Discussion
		4 Conclusion
		References in the paper[1,2]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-3] “Two-point pressure method for measuring the outgassing rate” (Yoshimura and Hirano, 1989)
		1 Introduction
		2 Two-point-pressure method
			A Principle
			B Measurement of the outgassing rate
			C Validity of the one-point-pressure method
		3 Measurement by the orifice method
		4 Discussion and conclusion
		References in the paper[1-3]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-4] “Speed measuring of ion getter pumps by the ‘three-gauge’ method” (Munro and Tom, 1965)
		2 Method
		3 Results and discussion
		References in the paper[1-4]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-5] “Orifice method in which two pumping speeds can be selected”
		1 Methods of measuring outgassing rates
		References in the paper[1-5]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-6] “Corrections in outgassing rate measurements by the variable conductance method” (Berman, Hausman, and Roth, 1971)
		2 Theory
		3 Time influence
		6 Conclusion
		References in the paper[1-6]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-7] “Conductance modulation method for the measurement of the pumping speed and outgassing rate of pumps in ultrahigh vac...
		1 Introduction
		2 Conductance modulation method
		5 Discussions and conclusion
		References in the paper[1-7]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-8] Differential orifice method; “La désorption sous vide” (Schram, 1963)
		Reviewed paper
	[1-9] “Discussion on methods for measuring the outgassing rate” (Yoshimura, 1990)
		Reviewed paper
4
	4 Outgassing rates of system-component materials
	[1] Outgassing Rates of Metallic Materials
	Reviewed papers
	[1-1] “Outgassing rates of stainless steel after different pretreatments” (Ishimori, Yoshimura, Hasegawa, and Oikawa, 1971)
		Reviewed paper
	[1-2] “Outgassing characteristics of stainless steel and aluminum with different surface treatments” (Young, 1969)
		References in the paper[1-2]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-3] “Technology of low-pressure systems—establishment of optimum conditions to obtain low degassing rates on 316L stainle...
		Conclusion
		References in the paper[1-3]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-4] “Treatment of the wall materials of extremely high vacuum chamber for dynamical surface analysis” (Tsukui, Hasunuma, ...
		2 Extremely high vacuum systems
		3 Treatment of vacuum chamber wall
		4 Surface topography
		5 Surface composition
		6 Outgassing rate
		7 Conclusion
		References in the paper[1-4]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-5] “Thin-wall vacuum chambers of austenitic stainless steel” (Moore, 1998[1-5-1], 2001)[1-5-2]
	[1-5-1] “Atmospheric permeation of austenitic stainless steel” (Moore, 1998)
		2 Analysis
			A Eschbach experiment
			B Extrapolation procedure
			C Oxygen effects
			D Quantitative effect of hydrogen recombination on outgassing and permeation
				1 Overall
				2 Bake in vacuum enclosure
				3 Operation in atmosphere at room temperature
				4 Bake in atmosphere, with chamber under vacuum
				5 Residual permeation during bake in atmosphere
				6 Residual permeation at room temperature
			E Summary of hydrogen permeation corrections
			F Effect of atmospheric water vapor
		4 Summary
		References in the paper[1-5-1]
			Reviewed paper
	Related paper
	[1-5-2] “Thin-walled vacuum chambers of austenitic stainless steel” (Moore, 2001)
		Related paper
	[1-6] Outgassing characteristics of the thin-walled stainless steel cells
	[1-6-1] “Outgassing in thin wall stainless steel cells”
		Related paper
	[1-6-2] “Experiments with a thin-walled stainless-steel vacuum chamber”
		Related paper
	[1-7] “Air bake-out to reduce hydrogen outgassing from stainless steel” (Bernardini, Braccini, De Salvo, Di Virgilio, Gaddi...
		Related paper
	[1-8] “An overview of methods to suppress hydrogen outgassing rate from austenitic stainless steel with reference to UHV an...
		Related paper
	Reviewed papers
	[1-9] “Permeability measurements with gaseous hydrogen for various steels” (Eschbach, Gross, and Schulien, 1963)
		6 Summary
		References in the paper[1-9]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-10] Vapor-pressure data
	[1-10-1] “Vapor-pressure data for the more common elements” (Honig, 1957)
		Reviewed paper
	[1-10-2] “Vapor-pressure data for some common gases” (Honig and Hook, 1960)
		Reviewed paper
	[2] Outgassing Rates of Nonmetallic Materials
	[2-1] Data by Yoshimura et al. (1970) and Yoshimura (1985)
	[2-1-1] “Measurement of outgassing rates from materials by differential pressure rise method” (Yoshimura, Oikawa, and Mikam...
	[2-1-2] “A differential pressure-rise method for measuring the net outgassing rates of a solid material and for estimating ...
		Reviewed papers
	[2-2] Data by Dayton (1959)
		References in the paper[2-2]
			Reviewed paper
	[2-3] “Water vapor permeation through Viton O-ring seals” (Yoshimura, 1989)
		References in the paper[2-3]
			Reviewed paper
	[2-4] “The properties of Viton ‘A’ elastomers: Part V. The practical application of Viton ‘A’ seals in high vacuum” (de Cse...
		1 Summary of previous results
		2 Use of double O-rings
		3 Contamination
		4 Practical considerations
		5 Conclusion
		References in the paper[2-4]
			Reviewed paper
	[2-5] “Recent advances in elastomer technology for UHV applications” (de Chernatony, 1977)
		3 Recent fluoro-elastomers: Kalrez ECD-006 and Viton E60C
		4 Conclusion
		References in the paper[2-5]
			Reviewed paper
	[2-6] “Practical selection of elastomer materials for vacuum seals” (Peacock, 1980)
		2 Properties of polymer seal materials-chemical
		3 Properties of polymer seal materials—mechanical
			A Compression set
		4 Outgassing
		5 Permeation
		6 Radiation damage of seal polymers
		References in the paper[2-6]
			Reviewed paper
	Comments in Part-1
		1 Recommended pretreatments for stainless-steel chamber walls
		2 Effect of in situ baking
		3 Effect of unit time exposure
		4 Advantage of slow high-vacuum pumping for suppressing excessive gas load
		5 Differential pressure rise method for measuring the outgassing rates of sample materials
		6 Three-point-pressure, two-point-pressure, and one-point-pressure methods
		7 Make use of mild-steel for scientific instrument chamber
Part 2
	Part 2 Molecular-flow network
		Introduction
			Basic concept of molecular-flow networks
5
	5 Molecular-flow conductance and gas-flow patterns
	[1] Molecular-flow conductance
	Quoted book
	[1-1] “Conductance of orifice, long tube, and short tube” (Roth, 1990)
		Quoted book
	Reviewed papers
	[1-2] “Monte Carlo calculation of molecular flow rates through a cylindrical elbow and pipes of other shapes” (Davis, 1960)
		Reviewed paper
	[1-3] “Optimization of molecular flow conductance” (Levenson, Milleron, and Davis, 1960)
		Reviewed paper
	Related paper
	[1-4] “A review of the molecular flow conductance for systems of tubes and components and the measurement of pumping speed”...
		Related paper
	[2] Gas-flow patterns
	Reviewed papers
	[2-1] “Gas flow patterns at entrance and exit of cylindrical tubes”
		Reviewed paper
	[2-2] “Angular distributions of molecular flux from orifices of various thicknesses” (Nanbu, 1985)
		Reviewed paper
	[2-3] “A further discussion about gas flow patterns at the entrance and exit of vacuum channels” (Ji-Yuan, 1988)
		2. Blade channels of the turbomolecular pump
		References in the paper[2-3]
			Reviewed paper
6
	6 Total and partial pressure gauges for ultrahigh-vacuum use
	[1] Bayard–Alpert gauge (BAG) and extractor gauge (EG)
	Reviewed papers
	[1-1] “New hot-filament ionization gauge with low residual current” (Redhead, 1966)
		4 Summary and conclusion
		References in the paper[1-1]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-2] “Practical guide to the use of Bayard–Alpert ionization gauges” (Singleton, 2001)
		4 Safety precautions
		7 Conclusion
		References in the paper[1-2]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-3] “Comparison of the pressure indication of a Bayard–Alpert and an extractor gauge” (Beeck and Reich, 1972)
		4 The extractor gauge
		5 Comparison of pressure indicators between Bayard–Alpert gauge and extractor gauge
		References in the paper[1-3]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-4] “Outgassing characteristics of an electropolished stainless-steel pipe with an operating extractor ionization gauge” ...
		2 Experiment
		References in the paper[1-4]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-5] Ion current characteristics of sputter-ion pump, compared with an extractor gauge (EG); “Ar-pumping characteristics o...
		Reviewed paper
	[1-6] “Starting delays in cold-cathode gauges at low pressures” (Kendall and Drubetsky, 1996)
		8 Discussion
		References in the paper[1-6]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-7] “Enhanced ignition of cold cathode gauges through the use of radioactive Isotopes” (Welch, Smart, and Todd)
		5 Experiment trials
		Reviewed paper
	[1-8] “Measurement of ultra-high vacuum. Part 1. Total pressure measurements” (Weston, 1979)
		4 Gauge calibration
		5 Conclusion
		References in the paper[1-8]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-9] “Review of pressure measurement techniques for ultrahigh vacua” (Lafferty, 1971)
		Reviewed paper
	[1-10] “Comparison of hot cathode and cold cathode ionization gauges” (Peacock, Peacock, and Hauschulz, 1991)
		Reviewed paper
	Related paper
	[1-11] “Hot-cathode magnetron ionization gauge with an electron multiplier ion detector for the measurement of extreme ultr...
		Related paper
	[2] Partial pressure gauges
	Reviewed papers
	[2-1] “Perspectives on residual gas analysis” (Lichtman, 1984)
		3 Current partial pressure analyzers
			A Magnetic sector
			B Quadrupole (monopole)
		References in the paper[2-1]
			Reviewed paper
	[2-2] “Measurement of ultra-high vacuum: Partial pressure measurements” (Weston, 1980)
		11 Calibration
		12 Conclusion
		References in the paper[2-2]
			Reviewed paper
	[2-3] “Determination of the ionization gauge sensitivity using the relative ionization cross-section” (Nakao, 1975)
		1 Introduction
		2 Sensitivity of the ionization gauge
		3 Results and discussion
		4 Conclusion
		References in the paper[2-3]
			Reviewed paper
	[2-4] “Simplified methods for the calculation of partial pressure using the relative ionization cross-section” (Nakao, 1975)
		1 Introduction
		3 Experimental apparatus and procedures
			3.1 Instruments
		3.2 Calibration
		3.3 Considerations of the ionization cross section
		3.4 Determination of the correction factor
		6 Conclusion
		References in the paper[2-4]
			Reviewed papers
7
	7 Molecular-flow networks
	[1] Resistor network simulation method
	Reviewed paper
	[1-1] “A differential pressure-rise method for measuring the net outgassing rates of a solid material and for estimating it...
		1 Introduction
		2 Characteristic values of a solid material as a gas source
		3 Differential pressure-rise method
			A Principle
			B Measurement of net outgassing rates of solid materials
			C Estimation of the characteristic values PX and K0 of Viton O-rings
		4 Vacuum circuit composed of the characteristic values of constituent elements
		5 Conclusion
		References in the paper[1-1]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-2] “Resistor network simulation method for a vacuum system in a molecular flow region” (Ohta, Yoshimura, and Hirano, 1983)
		1 Introduction
		2 Concept of vacuum system
			A New concept of a vacuum system and its components
		3 Simulation of the high-vacuum system of electron microscope
			A Procedures to design a simulator circuit
			B The simulator circuit
			C Application results
		4 Discussion
		5 Summary
		Acknowledgments
		References in the paper [1-3]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-3] “Matrix calculation of pressures in high-vacuum systems” (Hirano, Kondo, and Yoshimura, 1988)
		1 Introduction
		2 Linear vacuum circuit
		5 Application to practical high-vacuum systems
			A Pressure distribution along an outgassing pipe
			B Pressure distribution in an electron microscope high-vacuum system
		6 Conclusion
		References in the paper[1-3]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-4] “Analysis of pressure Distribution, based on vacuum circuits” (Yoshimura and Hirano, 1988)
		4 Pressure distribution in a complex-chambers-system with homogeneous walls
		Reviewed paper
	[2] Long history of works on molecular-flow networks
	Reviewed papers
	[2-1] “Comments on: ‘Resistor network simulation method for a vacuum system in a molecular flow region’” [J. Vac. Sci. Tech...
		References in the paper[2-1]
			Reviewed paper
	[2-2] “Theoretical analysis of a two-pump vacuum system”* (Kendall, 1968)
		Introduction
		1 Equivalent networks
		References in the paper [2-2]
			Reviewed paper
	[2-3] “An electrical analogue to a high vacuum system” (Aitkin, 1953)
		Reviewed paper
	[2-4] “Further applications of the electrical analogue to vacuum system” (Stops, 1953)
		References in the paper[2-4]
			Reviewed paper
	[2-5] “Analogs for elements between the vacuum system and the electric circuit” (Degras, 1956)
		Reviewed paper
	[2-6] “Vacuum circuit for a parallel evacuation” (Ohta, 1962)
		Reviewed paper
	[2-7] “Numerical modelling of vacuum systems using electronic circuit analysis tools” (Wilson, 1987)
		2 Model
			A Transformation rules
		References in the paper [2-7]
			Reviewed paper
	[2-8] “An analysis of a complex network of vacuum components and its application” (Horikoshi, Saito, and Kakihara, 1990)
		2 Vacuum pump and conduit pipe as a network component
		3 Kirchhoff’s law in a network of vacuum components
		Reviewed papers
	[2-9] “Vacuum calculations for large systems” (Reid, 1992)
		5 Electrical analogues
		6 Discussion
		References in the paper[2-9]
			Reviewed paper
	Related papers
	[2-10] “Theory of pulsed molecular-flow networks” (Kendall and Pulfrey, 1969)
		Related paper
	[2-11] “Computer design and analysis of vacuum systems” (Santeler, 1987)
		Related paper
	Comments in Part 2
Part 3
	Part 3 Phenomena occurred in electron microscopes
		Introduction
8
	8 Electron-induced gas desorption
	Reviewed papers
	[1-1] “The effect of bakeout temperature on the electron and ion induced gas desorption coefficients of some technological ...
		3 Temperature dependence of the desorption coefficients
		5 Discussion and conclusion
		References in the paper[1-1]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-2] “Temperature dependence of the electron induced gas desorption yields on stainless steel, copper, and aluminum” (Góme...
		3 Results
			A Temperature dependence
			B Dependence of gas desorption yields on the temperature and the dose
				1 Stainless steel
				2 Oxygen-free high thermal conductivity copper
				3 Aluminum
			C Dependence of gas desorption yields on the temperature and the coverage
				1 Stainless steel
				2 Oxygen-free high thermal conductivity copper
				3 Anticorodal aluminum
		6 Summary and conclusion
		References in the paper[1-2]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-3] “Photodesorption from stainless steel, aluminum alloy and oxygen free copper test chambers” (Ueda et al., 1990)
		3 Results and discussion
		4 Conclusion
		Reviewed paper
	[1-4] “Cleaning of metal parts in oxygen radio frequency plasma: Process study” (Korzec, Rapp, Theirich, and Engemann, 1994)
		4 Conclusion
		Reviewed paper
9
	9 Phenomena induced by fine electron-probe irradiation
	Reviewed papers
	[1-1] “Mechanism of contamination build-up induced by fine electron-probe irradiation” (Yoshimura, Hirano, and Etoh, 1983)
		1 Introduction
		2 Experiments
			2.1 Experimental conditions
				2.1.1 Pretreatment of specimen and specimen cartridge
				2.1.2 Three types of anticontamination devices
				2.1.3 Procedures for irradiation and observation
				2.1.4 Measurement of the contamination rate
			2.2 Experimental results
				2.2.1 Fine-probe irradiation without anticontamination device
				2.2.2 Fine-probe irradiation with the types 1, 2, and 3 anticontamination device, individually
				2.2.3 Other related experiments
		3 Discussions
		References in the paper[1-1]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-2] “The origin of specimen contamination in the electron microscope” (Ennos, 1953)
		5 Replenishment of the hydrocarbon film
		6 Experiments on surface film replenishment
		7 Conclusion
		References in the paper[1-2]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-3] “Observation of polymerized films induced by irradiation of electron beams” (Yoshimura and Oikawa, 1970)
		Reviewed paper
	[1-4] “The use of perfluoropolyether fluids in vapour stream pump”* (Holland, Laurenson, and Baker, 1972)
		1 Introduction
		2 Experimental
		3 Results
			3.1 Mass spectra
			3.2 Electron bombardment
			3.3 Infrared spectra
			3.4 Pumping speed measurement
			3.5 Critical backing pressures
		References in the paper[1-4]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-5] “The behavior of perfluoropolyether and other vacuum fluids under ion and electron bombardment” (Holland, Laurenson, ...
		2 Experimental systems and results
			2.1 Cold cathode discharge study
			2.3 RF plasma discharge
		4 Conclusion
		Reviewed paper[1-5]
	[1-6] “The sources of electron-induced contamination in kinetic vacuum systems” (Ennos, 1954)
		2 The vapor sources of contamination
		References in the paper[1-6]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-7] “Formation of thin polymer films by electron bombardment”* (Christy, 1960)
		4 Conclusion
		References in the paper[1-7]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-8] “Contamination in the STEM at ultra-high vacuum” (Wall, 1980)
		6 Discussion and conclusion
		References in the paper[1-8]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-9] “The prevention of contamination without beam damage to the specimen” (Heide, 1962)
		Reference in the paper[1-9]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-10] “Reduction of polymer growth in electron microscopes by use of a fluorocarbon oxide pump fluid” (Ambrose, Holland, a...
		References in the paper[1-10]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-11] “Vapor pressures of vacuum pump oils” (Nakayama, 1965)
		Reviewed paper
	[1-12] “Technology and application of pumping fluids” (Laurenson, 1982)
		Reviewed paper
	Related papers
	[1-13] “Contamination formed around a very narrow electron beam” (Knox, 1976)
		Related paper
	[1-14] “Contamination phenomena in cryopumped TEM and ultra-high vacuum field-emission STEM systems” (Fourie, 1976)
		Related paper
	[1-15] “Contribution to the contamination problem in transmission electron microscopy” (Reimer and Wächter, 1978)
		Related paper
	[1-16] “The elimination of surface-originating contamination in electron microscopes” (Fourie, 1978/79)
		Related paper
	[1-17] “A theory of surface-originating contamination and a method for its elimination” (Fourie, 1979)
		Related paper
	[1-18] “Elektronen-Mikroschreiber mit geschwindigkeitsgesteuerter Strahlführung. I” (Kahl-Heinz Müller, 1971)
		Related paper
	[1-19] “Herabsetzung der Kontaminationsrate im STEM bei einem Druck von 10−5Torr” (Bauer and Speidel, 1977)
		Related paper
	[1-20] “Perfluoroalkylpolyethers—a unique new class of synthetic lubricants” (Lawson, 1970)
		Related paper
	[1-21] “SEM vacuum techniques and contamination management” (Miller, 1978)
		Related paper
	[1-22] “Hydrocarbon contamination management in vacuum-dependent scientific instruments” (Bance et al., 1978)
		Related paper
	[1-23] “Secondary electron emission dependence on electron beam density dose and surface interaction from AES and ELS in an...
		Related paper
	[1-24] “Electric effects in contamination and electron beam etching” (Fourie, 1981)
		Related paper
10
	10 Micro-discharges in high vacuum
	[1] Micro-discharges over insulator surfaces
	Reviewed papers
	[1-1] “Microdischarges on an electron gun under high vacuum” (Watanabe, Yoshimura, Katoh, and Kobayashi, 1987)
		1 Introduction
		2 Experiment
			A Conditioning effect of an argon glow cleaning
			B Micro-discharges over the insulator surface
			C Outgassing from the insulator
		3 Discussion
			A Conditioning effect of argon glow cleaning
			B Micro-discharges over the insulator surface
		4 Conclusion
		References in the paper[1-1]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-2] “Surface flashover of solid dielectric in vacuum” (Pillai and Hackam, 1982)
		5 Flashover breakdown criteria
		7 Conclusion
		References in the paper[1-2]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-3] “Surface flashover of solid insulators in atmospheric air and in vacuum” (Pillai and Hackam, 1985)
		3 Results and discussions
			A Effect of conditioning on surface flashover
			B Effect of external resistance
			C Effect of gas pressure
			D Effect of electrode material
			E Dependence of the flashover voltage on electron impact energy and dielectric constant
			F Effect of spacer diameter on the flashover voltage
			G Dependence of flashover on length of solid insulator
		References in the paper[1-3]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-4] “Mechanism of pulsed surface flashover involving electron-stimulated desorption” (Anderson and Brainard, 1980)
		2 Surface flashover model
			A Summary
			B Secondary emission avalanche
			C Observation of avalanche current
		5 Conclusion
		References in the paper[1-4]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-5] “Insulation of high voltage across solid insulators in vacuum” (Shannon, Philp, and Trump, 1965)
		6 Discussion of results
			A Influence of insulator design
			B Ability to endure repeated sparking
			C Conduction current and the influence of insulator material
		7 Summary: attainable flashover performance
		References in the paper[1-5]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-6] “Pulsed flashover in vacuum” (Watson, 1967)
		3 Experimental results
		Reviewed paper
	[1-7] “Effects of corrugated insulator on electrical insulation in vacuum” (Yamamoto, Hara, Matsuura, Tanabe, and Konishi, ...
		5 Discussions
		6 Conclusion
		References in the paper[1-7]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-8] “Solid insulators in vacuum: a review” (Invited Paper) (Hawley, 1968)
		7 Hypotheses to explain the breakdown mechanism
		8 Practical insulator and shields
		9 Conclusion
		References in the paper[1-8]
			Reviewed paper
	Related papers
	[1-9] “Electrical breakdown over insulators in high vacuum” (Gleichauf, 1951)
		Related paper
	[1-10] “Surface flashover of insulators” (Miller, 1989)
		Related paper
	[1-11] “Mechanism of surface charging of high-voltage insulators in vacuum” (de Tourreil and Srivastava, 1973)
		Related paper
	[1-12] “DC electric-field modifications produced by solid Insulators bridging a uniform-field vacuum gap” (Sudarshan and Cr...
		Related paper
	[1-13] “The effect of cuprous oxide coatings on surface flashover of dielectric spacers in vacuum” (Cross and Sudarshan, 1974)
		Related paper
	[1-14] “The effect of chromium oxide coatings on surface flashover of alumina spacers in vacuum” (Sudarshan and Cross, 1976)
		Related paper
	[1-15] “Breakdown of alumina rf windows and its inhibition” (Saito, Anami, Michizono, Matuda, Kinbara, and Kobayashi, 1994)
		Related paper
	[2] Micro-Discharges Between High-Voltage Electrodes
	Reviewed papers
	[2-1] “The initiation of electrical breakdown in vacuum” (Cranberg, 1952)
		2 Proposed hypothesis and supporting data
		3 Conclusion
		Acknowledgment
		References in the paper[2-1]
			Reviewed paper
	[2-2] “Vacuum breakdown and surface coating of rf cavities” (Peter, 1984)
		Acknowledgment
		References in the paper[2-2]
			Reviewed paper
	[2-3] “Electron energy analysis of vacuum discharge in high-voltage accelerator tube” (Takaoka, Ura, and Yoshida, 1982)
		2 Experimental setup
		3 Experimental results and discussion
			(1) Energy spectra for pulsed and continuous discharge
		(2) Energy spectra in the case of secondary-ion suppression
		References in the paper[2-3]
			Reviewed paper
	Related papers
	[2-4] “New perspectives in vacuum high-voltage insulation: I. The transition to field emission” (Diamond, 1998)
		Rerated paper
	[2-5] “New perspectives in vacuum high-voltage insulation: II. Gas desorption” (Diamond, 1998)
		Related paper
	[2-6] “Electrical breakdown between stainless-steel electrodes in vacuum” (von Oostrom and Augustus, 1982)
		Related papers
	[2-7] “Mechanisms of electrical discharges in high vacuum at voltages up to 400,000V” (Prichard Jr., 1973)
		Related paper
	[2-8] “Influence of gap length on the field increase factor β of an electrode projection (whisker)” (Miller, 1984)
		Related paper
	[2-9] “Small-aperture diaphragms in ion-accelerator tubes” (Cranberg and Henshall, 1959)
		Related paper
	[2-10] “Pre-breakdown conduction in continuously-pumped vacuum systems” (Mansfield, 1960)
		Related papers
	[2-11] “Prebreakdown conduction between vacuum insulated electrodes” (Powell and Chatterton, 1970)
		Related paper
	[2-12] “Processes involved in the triggering of vacuum breakdown by low velocity microparticles” (Chatterton, Menon, and Sr...
		Related papers
	[2-13] “The initiation of electrical breakdown in vacuum – a review” (Davies, 1973)
		Related paper
	[2-14] “Microparticle-initiated vacuum breakdown – some possible mechanisms” (Menon and Srivastava, 1973)
		Related papers
	[2-15] “Emission of electrode vapor resonance radiation at the onset of dc breakdown in vacuum” (Davies and Biondi, 1977)
		Related paper
	[2-16] “The source of high-β electron emission sites on broad-area high-voltage alloy electrodes” (Allen, Cox, and Latham, ...
		Related papers
	[2-17] “Electrical breakdown strength of oxygen-free copper electrodes under surface and bulk treatment conditions” (Kobaya...
		Related papers
	Comments in Part-3
		1 Electron-induced/photon-induced gas desorption
		Reference
Part 4
	Part 4 Ultrahigh-vacuum systems of electron microscopes
		Introduction
11
	11 Development of diffusion pump, baffle with a cold cap, and liq. N2 trap
	[1] Development of JEOL diffusion pump stack
	Reviewed papers
	[1-1] “Advances in diffusion pump technology” (Hablanian and Maliakal, 1973)
		Introduction
		6 Back-streaming
		References in the paper[1-1]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-2] “Diffusion pump back-streaming” (Harris, 1977)
		Reviewed paper
	[1-3] “Backstreaming in diffusion pump systems” (Rettinghaus and Huber, 1974)
		5 Results of back-streaming measurements; response to variation of conditions
		References in the paper[1-3]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-4] Development of JEOL diffusion pump stack (DP, baffle with cold cap)
	Quoted book
	[1-4-1] “Developing new DP stack” (Book; Yoshimura, Springer Briefs, 2014, p. 56–58)
		References in the book [1-4-1]
			Quoted book
	Reviewed paper
	[1-5] “Thermal loss of a cold Trap” (Hirano and Yoshimura, 1981)
		Reviewed papers
12
	12 Cascade diffusion pump systems for electron microscopes
	[1] Performance of cascade diffusion-pump systems
	Reviewed papers
	[1-1] “A new vacuum system for an electron microscope” (Yoshimura, Ohmori, Nagahama, and Oikawa, 1974)
		3 A new vacuum system for an electron microscope
		Reviewed paper
	[1-2] “A cascade diffusion-pump system for an electron microscope” (Yoshimura, Hirano, Norioka, and Etoh, 1984)
		1 Introduction
		2 Discussions on dynamic diffusion pump systems for electron microscope
			A Typical diffusion pump systems tolerant of excess gas load in transitional evacuation
			B Differential evacuation systems for obtaining clean vacuum in the column
			C Safety systems to protect the vacuum system in an emergency
			D Rough evacuation systems for clean vacuum
		3 The cascade diffusion pump system of an electron microscope
		4 Conclusion
		References in the paper[1-2]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-3] “Practical advantages of a cascade diffusion-pump system of a scanning electron microscope” (Norioka and Yoshimura, 1991)
		2 Experiment
			A Static performance of a cascade diffusion pump system
			B Cascade diffusion pump system of scanning electron microscope
			C Turbomolecular pump systems for scanning electron microscope
		3 Conclusion
		References in the paper[1-3]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-4] “The influence of fore-vacuum conditions on ultra-high vacuum pumping systems with oil diffusion pumps” (Hengevoss an...
		2 Experimental apparatus
		3 The influence of back diffusion
		4 Turning off the booster diffusion pump
		7 Conclusion
		Reviewed paper
	[1-5] “Prevention of overload in high-vacuum systems” (Hablanian, 1992)
		2 Volume flow and mass flow
		3 The crossover pressure?
		References in the paper[1-5]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-6] “Advantage of slow high-vacuum pumping for suppressing excessive gas load in dynamic evacuation systems” (Yoshimura, ...
		1 Introduction
		2 Transitional phenomena of outgassing
		3 Excessive gas load just after switching over the evacuation mode
			3.1 Advantages of a small bypass valve
			3.2 High-resolution electron microscope, equipped with a small bypass valve
				Low-conductance bypass valve, applicable to the turbo-molecular pump or cryogenic pump systems
		References in the paper[1-6]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-7] “The effect of the inlet valve on the ultimate vacua above integrated pumping groups” (Dennis, Laurenson, Devaney and...
		3 Operation of the inlet valve
		4 Summary
		References in the paper[1-7]
			Reviewed paper
	[2] Roughing systems with an oil-sealed rotary pump
	Reviewed paper
	[2-1] “Vacua: How they may be improved or impaired by vacuum pumps and traps” (Holland, 1971)
		5. Effects on back-streaming rate of pipe conductance, gas flow and pressure
		Reviewed paper
	Related papers
	[2-2] “Backstreaming from rotary pumps” (Fulker, 1968)
		Related paper
	[2-3] “The development of an adsorption fore-line trap suitable for quick cycling vacuum systems” (Baker and Staniforth, 1968)
		Related paper
	[3] Analytical electron microscopes with a cascade-diffusion pump system
	Quoted book
	[3-1] “Memorial Book-1: History of JEOL (1); 35 years from its birth” (JEOL Ltd., March 1986)
		Analytical electron microscopes with a cascade-diffusion pump system[3-1-1]
		Quoted book
13
	13 Sputter-ion pumps for ultrahigh-vacuum use
	[1] Development of sputter ion pumps for ultrahigh-vacuum electron microscopes
	Reviewed papers
	[1-1] “Pumping characteristics of sputter ion pumps with high-magnetic-flux densities in an ultrahigh-vacuum range” (Ohara,...
		1 Introduction
		2 Pump-design parameters
		3 Pumping characteristics
		4 Conclusion
		References in the paper[1-1]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-2] “Ar-pumping characteristics of diode-type sputter ion pumps with various shapes of ‘Ta/Ti’ cathode pairs” (Yoshimura,...
		1 Introduction
		2 Diode-type sputter ion pumps with various shapes of Ti/Ta cathode pair
		3 Pumping speed characteristics
		4 Conclusion
		References in the paper[1-2]
			Reviewed paper
	[1-3] “Ar-pumping characteristics of diode-type sputter ion pumps with various shapes of ‘Ta/Ti’ cathode-pairs” (Yoshimura,...
		Reviewed paper
	[2] Review: Papers on the physical basis of sputter-ion pumps and Ti-sublimation pumps
	Reviewed papers
	[2-1] “The physics of sputter-ion pumps” (Jepsen, 1968)
		4 The “energetic-neutrals” hypothesis
		5 Conclusion
		References[2-1]
			Reviewed paper
	[2-2] “The development of sputter-ion pumps” (Andrew, 1968)
		5 Pump configurations for improved inert-gas pumping
		6 Stability of inert-gas pumping
		References in the paper[2-2]
			Reviewed paper
	[2-3] “Sputter-ion pumps for low pressure operation” (Rutherford, 1963)
		4 Experimental results
		References in the paper[2-3]
			Reviewed paper
	[2-4] “Stabilized air pumping with diode type getter-ion pumps” (Jepsen, Francis, Lutherford, and Kietzmann)
		3 The argon problem
		5 Stabilized diode pumps
			A Motivations
			B Experimental results
		References in the paper[2-4]
			Reviewed paper
	[2-5] “Pumping mechanisms for the inert gases in diode Penning pumps” (Baker and Laurenson, 1972)
		3 Experimental results
			A Pump stability
			B Pump speeds
			C Pump down and readmission curves
		References in the paper[2-5]
			Reviewed paper
	[2-6] “Enhancement of noble gas pumping for a sputter-ion pump” (Komiya and Yagi, 1969)
		Reviewed paper
	[2-7] “Comparison of diode and triode sputter-ion pumps” (Denison, 1977)
		Reviewed paper
	[2-8] “Pumping of helium and hydrogen by sputter-ion pumps. I. Helium pumping” (Welch, Pate, and Todd, 1993)
		10 Conclusion
		Reviewed paper
	[2-9] “Pumping of helium and hydrogen by sputter-ion pumps. II. Hydrogen pumping” (Welch, Pate, and Todd, 1993)
		7 Conclusion
		Reviewed paper
	[2-10] “Review of sticking coefficients and sorption capacities of gases on titanium films” (Harra, 1976)
		4 Conclusion
		References in the paper[2-10]
			Reviewed paper
	[2-11] “Methane outgassing from a Ti sublimation pump” (Edwards, Jr., 1980)
		4 Methane outgassing rate reduction
		5 Discussion
		References in the paper[2-11]
			Reviewed paper
14
	14 Ultrahigh-vacuum systems of electron microscopes
	[1] Ultrahigh vacuum systems of JEOL electron microscopes
	Reviewed papers
	[1-1] “Significance of Vacuum Technology in Electron Microscope” (Harada and Yoshimura, 1987)
		Reviewed paper
	[1-2] “Ultrahigh-vacuum scanning electron microscope (STEM)” (Tomita, 1990)
		Reviewed paper
	[1-3] “Design and development of an ultrahigh vacuum high-resolution transmission electron microscope” (Kondo et al., 1991)
		2 Design of vacuum system
			2.1 Ultrahigh vacuum high column construction of the microscope
			2.2 Construction of pumping system and its control system
			2.3 Evaluation of vacuum system by computer simulation and measurement
		References in the paper[1-3]
			Reviewed paper
	[2] Progress of electron microscopes
	Reviewed papers
	[2-1] Review paper: “High resolution, high speed ultrahigh vacuum microscopy” (Poppa, 2004)
		6 Future ultrahigh vacuum–high-resolution transmission electron microscope systems
			A Ultrahigh vacuum e-cell instruments
			B Real-time defocus image modulation processing approach
			C Aberration-corrected ultrahigh vacuum high-resolution transmission electron microscopes
		7 Conclusion
		References in the paper[2-1]
			Reviewed paper
	[2-2] “Progress of electron microscope technology in Japan”
		Reference in the paper[2-2]
			Reviewed papers
	[3] JEOL analytical electron microscopes with a field-emission electron source
	[3-1] Memorial Book-2: History of JEOL (2); “Creation and development: 60 years from its birth”, (JEOL Ltd., May 2010)[3-1]...
		References in the paper[3-1]
			Reviewed papers
	Comments in Part-4
		1 “Diffusion pump with thick-wall, mild-steel pump vessel, works well with pump fluid, Santovac-5”
		2 Clean roughing system without sorption trap
		Acknowledgments
Index
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