A Reference Grammar For Teaching Chinese: Syntax And Discourse

Preface
Contents
About the Authors
1 Introduction
	1.1 The Need for a Grammar for Teaching Chinese
	1.2 The Contents and Structure of the Book
	1.3 Major Characteristics of the Chinese Language
		1.3.1 An Isolating/Analytical Language
		1.3.2 Word Order and Use of Function Words
		1.3.3 The Positions of Modifiers and the Modified
		1.3.4 Temporal Sequence
		1.3.5 Topic Prominence
		1.3.6 Verb and Non-verb Predicates
		1.3.7 Complement: Some Special Verb-Compound Structures
		1.3.8 Use of Classifiers
		1.3.9 Syllabic Counts and Grammaticality
		1.3.10 Summary
	Further Reading
2 Simple Sentences
	2.1 Overview
	2.2 Basic Structure of Simple Sentences
		2.2.1 Subject and Subjectless Sentences
		2.2.2 Predicate and Single-Word/Phrase Sentences
		2.2.3 Objects
	2.3 Some Special Predicate Verbs
		2.3.1 The Predicate Verb shì (是)
		2.3.2 The Predicate Verb yu (有)
		2.3.3 The Predicate Verbs Forming Serial Verb Constructions
		2.3.4 The Predicate Verbs Generating Pivotal Constructions
	2.4 Imperatives
	2.5 Exclamations
	2.6 Common Errors and Reminders
		2.6.1 The Absence of the Copular shì (是) Before an Adjective
		2.6.2 The Verb yu (有) Is Not Exactly the Equivalent of to Have in English
		2.6.3 No Object Should Follow a Verb-Object Compound
		2.6.4 The Possible Positions of Object in Different Sentences
		2.6.5 Verbs in a Series Should Follow Temporal Sequence
		2.6.6 Use Aspect Markers Correctly
		2.6.7 Causative Verbs
	2.7 Suggestions for Teaching
		2.7.1 Grammar Alone Is Not Enough
		2.7.2 Teach in Accordance with the Characteristics of the Chinese Language
			2.7.2.1 Adjectives as Predicates
			2.7.2.2 Word Order
			2.7.2.3 Lack of Tense and Markers of Aspect
		2.7.3 Mind the Differences of Usage and Semantic Scope Between the Target and Native Languages
		2.7.4 Involve Students´ Other Senses to Enhance Learning Whenever Possible
	Further Reading
3 Negations and Questions
	3.1 Overview of Negation in Chinese
		3.1.1 The Basic Functions of bù (不)
		3.1.2 The Basic Functions of Méi (没)
		3.1.3 The Basic Functions of Bié (别)
		3.1.4 Position and Scope of the Negative Adverbs
		3.1.5 Other Words of Negation
		3.1.6 Double Negation
	3.2 Overview of Questions
		3.2.1 Types of Questions and Answers
			3.2.1.1 Questions with the Particles
			3.2.1.2 Disjunctive Questions
				3.2.1.2.1 Disjunctive Questions with the Conjunction Hishi (还是)
				3.2.1.2.2 Affirmative-Negative (A-not-A) Questions
			3.2.1.3 Special (wh-) Questions with Question Words
			3.2.1.4 Tag Questions
		3.2.2 Questions for Non-interrogatory Purposes
			3.2.2.1 Question Embedded in a Statement
			3.2.2.2 Rhetorical Questions
	3.3 Common Errors and Reminders
		3.3.1 Common Errors of Negation
		3.3.2 Common Errors of Questions
	3.4 Suggestions for Teaching
		3.4.1 Teach the Negative Form Right After the Affirmative Form
		3.4.2 Implicit Modeling and Maximizing Interaction
		3.4.3 Interactive Activities for Practicing Negation
		3.4.4 From Negative Statements to Affirmative-Negative Questions
		3.4.5 Generate Special Questions from Statements
		3.4.6 Interactive Activities for Practicing Questions
	Further Reading
4 Aspect
	4.1 Overview: About Tense and Aspect
		4.1.1 Distinguishing Aspect from Tense
		4.1.2 Aspect Marking in Chinese
		4.1.3 An Outline of the More Common Aspects
	4.2 The Verbal Suffix 了1: Marker for Completion
		4.2.1 First Approach of 了1: The Core Case
		4.2.2 Verbs of Mental or Psychological States Do Not Take 了1
		4.2.3 Negation and Question Formation of Verb +了1
		4.2.4 Verbs of Saying, Reporting, and Thinking
		4.2.5 Resultative, Potential, and State-of-Affairs Complements and 了1
		4.2.6 The Suffix 了1 in a Subordinate Clause
		4.2.7 The Suffix 了1 in a List of Events or in a Serial Verb Construction
		4.2.8 Verbs of Motion and Verbs of Motion Combined with Other Verbs
		4.2.9 Special Case: 了1 Indicating Capability
	4.3 The Core Case of 了2: New Situation or Change of State
		4.3.1 The Core Case: New Situation or Change of State
		4.3.2 Negation and Question Formation of Sentence with 了2
		4.3.3 Use of 了2 to Indicate Imminent Future
		4.3.4 The Suffix 了1 and the Particle 了2 in Imperative Sentences
		4.3.5 The Particle 了2 Signals Reference to the Time of Speech
		4.3.6 Coexisting 了1 and 了2: The ``Double 了´´ Sentence
		4.3.7 Counterfactual Hypothesis
		4.3.8 The Suffix 了1 Acting as 了2 with the Verb 有 in a Subordinate Clause
		4.3.9 Is It 了1 or 了2? If One Must Ask
	4.4 The Adjectival Suffix 了3
		4.4.1 The Core Case: Deviation from the Norm or Expectation
		4.4.2 Distinction Between the Verbal Suffix 了1 and the Adjectival Suffix 了3
		4.4.3 Distinction Between the Sentence-Final 了2 and the Adjectival Suffix 了3
	4.5 The Continuous State and Ongoing Action Marker 着
		4.5.1 The Core Case: Continuous State
		4.5.2 Ongoing Action 正在+V Versus Continuous State V+着
			4.5.2.1 The Usages of 正在, 正, and 在
			4.5.2.2 Contrast and Interaction Between 正在 and 着
		4.5.3 Existential Sentence: Place + Verb-着 + Theme
			4.5.3.1 Generic 有 Versus Specific Verb-着 in Existential Sentences
			4.5.3.2 Distinction Among 有, 在, and 是 in Existential Sentences
		4.5.4 Negation and Question Formation of V-着
		4.5.5 The V1-着  V2 Construction
		4.5.6 The Phrase V 着 V 着 Used as Subordinate Clause
		4.5.7 The Suffix 着 in Commands
		4.5.8 The Structure Adjective + 着 + 呢 !
		4.5.9 The Suffix 了1 Replaces 着 in Existential Sentence
		4.5.10 Other V-着´s and 来着
		4.5.11 The Expression 试着+Verb Versus Try to +Verb
	4.6 The Suffix 过
		4.6.1 The Core Case: Experience Marker
		4.6.2 Negation and Question Formation of V+过
		4.6.3 The Suffix 过 Indicating Completion
		4.6.4 Adjective + 过
	4.7 Common Errors and Reminders
		4.7.1 Erroneously Treating 了1 as Past Tense in English
		4.7.2 Misplacing 了1 on the Wrong Verb
		4.7.3 Overuse of 了1 in Discourse and in Subordinate Clauses
		4.7.4 Reminder of Negation and 了1
		4.7.5 Underuse of 了2 and 了3
		4.7.6 Underuse of Existential 着
	4.8 Suggestions for Teaching
		4.8.1 Understanding the Basic Concepts: The Key to Success
		4.8.2 Optimizing the Instruction of le (了)
		4.8.3 Learning and Using le (了) in Context
		4.8.4 Teaching in a Spiral Rising Fashion and Taking Preventive Measures
		4.8.5 Some Practical Techniques of Teaching zhe (着)
		4.8.6 Understanding guo (过) Better Through Comparison and Contrast
	Further Reading
5 Attributives
	5.1 Overview
	5.2 The Presence and Absence of the Attributive Marker de (的)
	5.3 Multiple Attributives and Their Sequencing
	5.4 Common Errors and Reminders
		5.4.1 Incorrect Word Order
		5.4.2 The Incorrect Use of de (的)
		5.4.3 Collocations and Conventions
		5.4.4 The Differences Between Attributive and Predicate
	5.5 Suggestions for Teaching
		5.5.1 Mechanical Drill Is Necessary
		5.5.2 Exercises Directed Against Common Mistakes
		5.5.3 Noun Compound to Attributive-Noun Conversion or Vice Versa
		5.5.4 Explaining Specific Terms
		5.5.5 Show and Tell
		5.5.6 Interactive Games
	Further Reading
6 Adverbials
	6.1 Overview
		6.1.1 Definition of Adverbial in Chinese Grammar
		6.1.2 Types of Adverbials
	6.2 Temporal, Duration, and Frequency
		6.2.1 Position of Temporal Adverbials
			6.2.1.1 Regular Position of Temporal
			6.2.1.2 Temporal in Sentence-Initial Position
		6.2.2 Position of Duration
		6.2.3 Position of Frequency
	6.3 Locative, Destination, and Directional
		6.3.1 Place as a Nominal Entity
		6.3.2 Localizers and Place Nouns
		6.3.3 Place Noun and Existential Construction
		6.3.4 Position of Locative
		6.3.5 Position of Destination
		6.3.6 Position of Directional
		6.3.7 Summary of Locative, Destination, and Directional
	6.4 Source, Range, Starting Point, and End Point
		6.4.1 Source
		6.4.2 Source, Range, Starting Point, and End Point
	6.5 Beneficiary, Recipient, and Theme
		6.5.1 Recipient Versus Beneficiary
		6.5.2 English Double Accusative Construction and 给
		6.5.3 Theme
			6.5.3.1 Alternation in Transitivity
			6.5.3.2 Nominalization of Verb Phrase
			6.5.3.3 The Preposition 对 and Indirect Object
			6.5.3.4 Dual Function of 对来藴
	6.6 Manner Adverbials
		6.6.1 Intentional Manner Versus State-of-Affair Complement
		6.6.2 Non-intentional Manner Adverbials
		6.6.3 To De or Not to De
		6.6.4 Discrimination of 的, 得, and 地
	6.7 Other Adverbials
		6.7.1 Degree Adverbs
		6.7.2 Clausal Adverbs
		6.7.3 Attitudinal Adverbs
		6.7.4 Connective Adverbials
	6.8 Remaining Preposition Phrases as Adverbials
		6.8.1 Purpose and Rationale: 为了, 来, 这样, 免得, and 以免
		6.8.2 Reason and Cause: 由于 and 因为
		6.8.3 Path and Means: 从, 由, 沿着, 顺着, 通过, and 经过
		6.8.4 Agent: 由被为 and 受
		6.8.5 Instrumental: 用, 拿, 以, 凭, and 靠
		6.8.6 Accompaniment: 跟, 和, 与, and 随着
		6.8.7 Topic: 关于, 至于, and 藴到
		6.8.8 Target and Basis: 针对, 就, 论, 就而言, 就来看, 按照, and 根据
		6.8.9 Postverbal Prepositions 于, 自, and 至
	6.9 Common Errors and Reminder
		6.9.1 Time
		6.9.2 Place
		6.9.3 Mismatch of Transitivity Between English and Chinese
		6.9.4 Stylistic Choice
	6.10 Suggestions for Teaching
		6.10.1 Temporal and Duration
		6.10.2 Locative Versus Destination
		6.10.3 Choice of Preposition: Sample Reviews
		6.10.4 Genitive V-O Verbs
	Further Reading
7 Special Multifunctional Adverbs (I)
	7.1 Overview
		7.1.1 The Semantic Complexity of Adverbs
		7.1.2 The Exclamatory Nature of Attitudinal Adverbs
		7.1.3 Understanding Three Levels of Usage of Adverbs
	7.2 The Adverb 真
		7.2.1 The Two Meanings of 真 and Really
		7.2.2 Degree Intensifier 真 Very Much, so Versus Truthfulness 真的 Indeed
		7.2.3 Scope of Negation: Not Really Versus Really Not
	7.3 The Adverb 都
		7.3.1 Adverb 都 as the Universal Quantifier
			7.3.1.1 Fixed Position and Leftward Reference
			7.3.1.2 Ambiguous and Multiple Association
			7.3.1.3 Interaction of 都 and Negation: Partial Negation Versus Total Negation
			7.3.1.4 都 Versus 所有的 and 任何
		7.3.2 都 Even
			7.3.2.1 Understanding 连都 Pattern
			7.3.2.2 连一个都 Not Even One
			7.3.2.3 一点儿都不 Not at All Versus 根本 At All
			7.3.2.4 V + 都 不 / 没 + V Without Even V-ing
			7.3.2.5 Comparison of 连都 and 甚至
		7.3.3 Interrogative + 都 Any
			7.3.3.1 The Concept of NPI
			7.3.3.2 Interrogative + 都 Any Versus 每都 Every
			7.3.3.3 谁都 Versus 谁也
		7.3.4 都 + Interrogative Who All, What All, Where All, Etc.
		7.3.5 不管/无论都 No Matter (Also See Chap. 18)
		7.3.6 都 Already
		7.3.7 Attitudinal 都 of Complaint
	7.4 The Adverb 也
		7.4.1 The Essential Usage: 也 Also
		7.4.2 也 Even, Not at All, Regardless, Any, Etc.
		7.4.3 就算 / 即使也 Even If
		7.4.4 宁可也 Would Rather
		7.4.5 Attitudinal 也
			7.4.5.1 Attitudinal 也 of Reservation (cf. 倒)
			7.4.5.2 Attitudinal 也 of Disapproval (cf. 还)
			7.4.5.3 Attitudinal 也 of Compromise and Concession (cf. 就)
			7.4.5.4 Subordinator 也 of Circumstance
		7.4.6 Expletive 也
			7.4.6.1 也太! and 也只!
			7.4.6.2 也才, 也还, and 也就
	7.5 The Adverb 才
		7.5.1 Essential Usage of 才
			7.5.1.1 才 Referring to Its Left or to Its Right: As Late As, Just, or Only?
			7.5.1.2 The Adverb Just Versus Time Adverbial Just Now: 才, 刚 Versus 刚才
		7.5.2 Inter-clausal 才
			7.5.2.1 只有才 Only If
			7.5.2.2 因为 / 为了才 Only Because and Only To
			7.5.2.3 直到 / 当才 Notuntil
		7.5.3 Attitudinal 才
			7.5.3.1 才 of Contempt
			7.5.3.2 才 of Retort
			7.5.3.3 才 of Correction
			7.5.3.4 才 of Praise of Worthiness
	7.6 Common Errors and Reminders
		7.6.1 Common Errors Regarding 真
		7.6.2 Common Errors Regarding 都
		7.6.3 Misplacement of Adverbs as Conjunctions
		7.6.4 Improper Omission of Crucial Adverbs
		7.6.5 Inability to Interpret Attitudinal Adverbs
		7.6.6 Underuse of Attitudinal Adverbs
	7.7 Suggestions for Teaching
8 Speciacl Multifunctional Adverbs (II)
	8.1 The Adverb 就
		8.1.1 Essential Usages of 就
			8.1.1.1 就 of Earliness As Early As
			8.1.1.2 就 Imminent Future
			8.1.1.3 就 Identifying a Previously Mentioned Entity
			8.1.1.4 Equative 就是 in X 就是 Y
			8.1.1.5 Affirmative 就是 Affirming a Situation or Fact
			8.1.1.6 就 of Proximity and Convenience
			8.1.1.7 就 of Exclusiveness or Small Quantity Only/Just (vs. 才 and 只)
			8.1.1.8 就 of Large Quantity in a Limited Scope As Many/Much As
		8.1.2 Inter-clausal 就
			8.1.2.1 Immediate Sequence of Two Events: As Soon As or Whenever
			8.1.2.2 Conditional Clause: If, then
			8.1.2.3 Concessional 既然就 vs. Causal 因为就
			8.1.2.4 就是 of Concession Even If/Even Though
			8.1.2.5 就 of Sufficient Condition As Long As
			8.1.2.6 Comparison Between 就 and 才 in a Bi-clausal Setting
		8.1.3 Attitudinal 就
			8.1.3.1 就 of Spite or Stubbornness
			8.1.3.2 就 of Fine! See if I Care! and Well, OK!
			8.1.3.3 就 of Belittlement
			8.1.3.4 Interpreting the Idiomatic Pattern: 藴 X 就 X
	8.2 The Adverb 又
		8.2.1 The Essential Usage of 又 Again
			8.2.1.1 又 Again
			8.2.1.2 The Scope of 又 Again
		8.2.2 又又 Linking Two Adjective or Verb Phrases
		8.2.3 Inter-clausal 又
		8.2.4 Attitudinal 又 of Puzzlement
	8.3 The Adverb 再
		8.3.1 再 Again
		8.3.2 再 Do More of an Action
		8.3.3 再 In Addition To One Action or One Situation
		8.3.4 先再 First then
		8.3.5 再 Indicating Continuation of an Action or Situation
		8.3.6 再 + Adjective Meaning Even in a Comparison Sentence
		8.3.7 再 Indicating a Hypothetical Situation
		8.3.8 Interaction Between 再 and Negation 不 and 没
	8.4 The Adverb 还
		8.4.1 还 vs. 还是 Still vs. Still
		8.4.2 Inter-clausal 还
			8.4.2.1 还 vs. 也: In Addition vs. Also
			8.4.2.2 还是 Still
			8.4.2.3 还 Even, Let Alone
		8.4.3 还 in Comparison
		8.4.4 Attitudinal 还
			8.4.4.1 Attitudinal 还 of Reservation (还算)
			8.4.4.2 Attitudinal 还 of Ridicule and Sarcasm (还 呢/啊)
			8.4.4.3 Attitudinal 还 of Surprise (还真)
	8.5 The Adverb 可
		8.5.1 可 + Adjective + 了
		8.5.2 可 Marking New Information
		8.5.3 可 Marking Obvious Facts as Reminders
		8.5.4 可 Reminder Used in Imperatives
		8.5.5 可 Finally: Sigh of Relief
		8.5.6 这这下这回 with 可 Indicating a New Situation
	8.6 The Adverb 倒
		8.6.1 倒 Is Intrinsically Attitudinal
		8.6.2 Inter-clausal 倒
		8.6.3 倒是 Marking a Contrastive Topic
		8.6.4 倒 with Other Attitudinal Adverbs
		8.6.5 Idiomatic Expressions of 倒
			8.6.5.1 Noun + 倒好
			8.6.5.2 Imperative 倒是
	8.7 Common Errors and Reminders
		8.7.1 Some Additional Comments Regarding 才 and 就
		8.7.2 Misplacement of Adverbs as Conjunctions
		8.7.3 Improper Omission of Crucial Adverbs
		8.7.4 Unfamiliarity with the Syntactic and Semantic Requirements for Using Certain Adverbs
		8.7.5 Confusing Pairs of Adverbs 还 vs. 还是, 就 vs. 也就, 倒 vs. 倒是, 就 vs. 就是
	8.8 Suggestions for Teaching
9 The State-of-Affairs Complement
	9.1 Overview
	9.2 Basic Structures and Word Order
		9.2.1 Affirmative Form
		9.2.2 Negative Form
		9.2.3 Interrogative Form
		9.2.4 Special Case
	9.3 Distinctions Between State-of-Affairs Complement and Adverbial of Manner
		9.3.1 The Distinctions
		9.3.2 Monosyllabic Versus Disyllabic Adjectives
	9.4 Common Errors and Reminders
		9.4.1 Do Not Forget the Marker de (得)
		9.4.2 Copy the Verb if It Is a Separable Word or V-O Construction
		9.4.3 No le (了) Is Used Even if It Is an Action or Event in the Past
		9.4.4 Negation or Question on the Adjective Rather Than the Verb
		9.4.5 Non-applicable in Suggestions or Request
		9.4.6 Do Not Mix with a Resultative Complement
		9.4.7 Differentiate from an Adverbial
		9.4.8 Restriction of the Topicalization of an Object
		9.4.9 The Proper Position of the Adverb Also (也)
		9.4.10 Non-predicative Adjectives
	9.5 Suggestions for Teaching
		9.5.1 Focus on the Adjective After the Verb Phrase
		9.5.2 Impressions of Actions and Performance
		9.5.3 Using Rap Songs to Practice
		9.5.4 Commenting on Celebrities
		9.5.5 Other Interactive Activities
			9.5.5.1 Explain Why
			9.5.5.2 Dating Game
			9.5.5.3 Talking Big
			9.5.5.4 Giving Advice
	Further Reading
10 Resultative Complement
	10.1 Overview
	10.2 Basic Structures and Word Order
		10.2.1 Affirmative Form
		10.2.2 Negative Form
		10.2.3 Interrogative Form
	10.3 Common Resultative Compounds
		10.3.1 Some Commonly Used Resultative Compounds
		10.3.2 Some ``Problematic´´ Resultative Complements
			10.3.2.1 zho (着)
			10.3.2.2 dào (到)
			10.3.2.3 hăo (好)
			10.3.2.4 diào (掉)
			10.3.2.5 zhù (住)
			10.3.2.6 chén (成)
	10.4 Distinction Between the Resultative Complement and the State-of-Affairs Complement
	10.5 Common Errors and Reminders
		10.5.1 No Element Between the Verb and the Resultative Compound
		10.5.2 Temporal Sequence: Actions Always Before Results
		10.5.3 Position of the Aspect and Experiential Markers
		10.5.4 Negating the Verb but Not the Result
		10.5.5 No Mixture of a Resultative and a State-of-Affairs Complement
		10.5.6 Stress the Element Indicating a Result in Speaking
	10.6 Suggestions for Teaching
		10.6.1 Comparing the Meanings and Structures Between the Two Languages
		10.6.2 Using Pictures as Prompts
		10.6.3 Progress from Simple to Complex
		10.6.4 Engaging Students Individually
		10.6.5 Other Activities
	Further Reading
11 Directional Complement
	11.1 Overview
		11.1.1 Simple Directional Complement
		11.1.2 Compound Directional Complement
		11.1.3 The Extended Usages and Meanings of Directional Complement
	11.2 Basic Structures and Word Order
		11.2.1 Affirmative Form
		11.2.2 Negative Form
		11.2.3 Interrogative Form
		11.2.4 The Potential Form of the Directional Complement
		11.2.5 Idiomatic Expressions
	11.3 Distinctions: Directional Complements Versus Directional Complements and Directional Complements Versus Resultative Compl...
		11.3.1 Distinctions Between the Usages of Some Directional Complements
		11.3.2 The Extended Usages of Some Directional Complements Versus the Resultative Complements
			11.3.2.1 V上 Versus V见
			11.3.2.2 V上 Versus V到
			11.3.2.3 V上 Versus V着
			11.3.2.4 V下 Versus V掉
	11.4 Common Errors and Reminders
		11.4.1 Neutralize the Directional Complement in Speech
		11.4.2 The Word Order of the Verb and Its Directional Complement
		11.4.3 The Position of the Object with a Directional Complement
		11.4.4 The Use of Aspect Marker le (了)
		11.4.5 No Potential Form for Some Directional Complement
	11.5 Suggestions for Teaching
		11.5.1 From Verbs to the Usages of Directional Complement
		11.5.2 From Simple to Compound Directional Complement
		11.5.3 Let Students Act Out What They Say
		11.5.4 Treating Directional Complement as Lexical Items
		11.5.5 Other Interactive Activities
			11.5.5.1 Simon Says
			11.5.5.2 Telephone
			11.5.5.3 Treasure Hunting
			11.5.5.4 Potluck Party
			11.5.5.5 Rearranging the Furniture
	Further Reading
12 Potential Complement
	12.1 Overview
		12.1.1 Primary Features of Potential Complement
		12.1.2 Potential Complement Is Not Exactly the Same as the Modal Verb Can
		12.1.3 All Resultative Verb Compounds May Not Have Their Potential Forms
		12.1.4 Some Other Constraints of Potential Complement
		12.1.5 Potential Complement Derived from Directional Complement
		12.1.6 The Special Potential Complement with liăo (了)
		12.1.7 The Minimum Potential Complement or Suffix -de (-得)
	12.2 Basic Structures and Word Order
		12.2.1 Affirmative Form
		12.2.2 Negative Form
		12.2.3 Interrogative Form
	12.3 Distinctions Between Potential Complement and Other Complements
	12.4 Common Errors and Reminders
		12.4.1 The Chinese Word néng (能) Is No Equivalent to Its English Counterpart
		12.4.2 The Negative Form of Potential Complement Is Not for Imperatives
		12.4.3 Potential Complement Does Not Go with b (把) or bèi (被)
		12.4.4 No Aspect Markers with Potential Complement
		12.4.5 The Particles de (得) and bu (不) Cannot Co-occur in Potential Complement
		12.4.6 The Position of Object in a Sentence with Potential Complement
		12.4.7 Potential Complement Is Generally in Spoken Chinese
		12.4.8 No Verb Reduplication Before Potential Complement
	12.5 Suggestions for Teaching
		12.5.1 The Optimal Teaching Sequence of Potential Complement
		12.5.2 Emphasizing the Limitation of néng (能)
		12.5.3 Using Resultative Complement to Usher in Potential Complement
		12.5.4 Differentiate Potential Complement from Other Complements
		12.5.5 Using Actions/Movements to Practice Directional Complement in Potential Form
		12.5.6 Interactive Activities
			12.5.6.1 Where´s Waldo?
			12.5.6.2 Dining Out
			12.5.6.3 Describing Pictures
	Further Reading
13 Quantitative Complement
	13.1 Overview
		13.1.1 Complement of Time-Measure
		13.1.2 Complement of Action Measure
			13.1.2.1 Measure by Instance
			13.1.2.2 Measure by Means or Instrument
			13.1.2.3 Measure by Body Parts
			13.1.2.4 Measure by Effect
		13.1.3 Complement of Difference Measure in Comparison
	13.2 Basic Structures and Word Order
		13.2.1 Affirmative Form
		13.2.2 Negative Form
		13.2.3 Interrogative Form
	13.3 Reduplication of Verbs
		13.3.1 The Formation of Verb Reduplication
		13.3.2 Semantic Function of Verb Reduplication
		13.3.3 Usage
			13.3.3.1 Polite Request
			13.3.3.2 Verb Reduplication and the Verbal Suffix 了
			13.3.3.3 Verb Reduplication and Negation
			13.3.3.4 Verb Reduplication and Question
			13.3.3.5 Double Verb Reduplication and V 来 V 去
		13.3.4 Restrictions on Verb Reduplication
			13.3.4.1 Types of Verb and Speech Register
			13.3.4.2 Structural Restriction
			13.3.4.3 Semantic Restriction on the Object
		13.3.5 Verbal Diminutive
			13.3.5.1 Verbal Diminutive Versus Verb Reduplication
			13.3.5.2 Ambiguity Issue with 个
	13.4 Placement and Interpretation of Quantitative Complement
		13.4.1 The Issue
		13.4.2 Activity Verb Versus Accomplishment Verb: Interpreting Time-Measure Complement
		13.4.3 Combining Time-Measure and the Object into One Phrase
		13.4.4 Choosing Between ``V + O + V + Duration´´ or ``V + Duration´s + O´´
	13.5 Common Errors and Reminders
		13.5.1 Quantitative Complement Is Not the Same as Object
		13.5.2 Beware of the Constraints of Verbs
		13.5.3 Mind the Correct Position of the Object
		13.5.4 Use le (了) or guo (过) Properly
		13.5.5 Place an Adverb in the Right Position
	13.6 Suggestions for Teaching
		13.6.1 Start with Simple Instances Closely Related to Students´ Life
		13.6.2 Using Questions to Push Output
		13.6.3 Meaningful Conversations Based on Students´ Experience
		13.6.4 Be Mindful of the Position of the Object
		13.6.5 Other Interactive Activities
	Further Reading
14 Comparison
	14.1 Overview
		14.1.1 Marked Form
		14.1.2 Unmarked Form: Implicit Comparison
		14.1.3 Unmarked Form: Complement of Difference Measure
	14.2 Equal Comparison
		14.2.1 Derivations of the Basic Pattern
		14.2.2 Negation
		14.2.3 Other Patterns of Equal Comparison
	14.3 Unequal Comparisons
		14.3.1 Superiority
			14.3.1.1 Simple Comparison of Superiority
			14.3.1.2 Comparison of Superiority with Quantifier
			14.3.1.3 Other Comparative Structures of Superiority
		14.3.2 Indicators of Shared Nature or Characteristics of the Items Compared
		14.3.3 Inferiority
			14.3.3.1 The Absolute Inferiority
			14.3.3.2 The Relative Inferiority with Possible Approximation
			14.3.3.3 The Inferiority Primarily Used in Written Chinese
	14.4 Other Sentence Structures Involving Comparison
	14.5 Common Errors and Reminders
		14.5.1 Differentiate Equal and Unequal Comparisons
		14.5.2 The Position of the Adverb 不 in Negation
		14.5.3 Beware What May Be Compared
		14.5.4 No Adverb of Degree Before the Adjective in Comparison
		14.5.5 Adjective Should Precede the Verb in Some Special Cases of Comparison
		14.5.6 The Differences Between 没(有) and 不 in Negation
		14.5.7 Adding Quantifier After Comparison: Possible Versus Impossible
		14.5.8 比 Is Not the Same as 比较
		14.5.9 The Omission of an Item in Comparison
	14.6 Suggestions for Teaching
		14.6.1 Focus on Teaching One Item at a Time
		14.6.2 From Implicit to Explicit Comparison
		14.6.3 Let Students Figure Out What to Be Compared
		14.6.4 Interactive Activities
	Further Reading
15 Special Sentences (I): The bǎ (把) Construction
	15.1 Overview
	15.2 Basic Structures and Word Order
		15.2.1 The Affirmative Form
		15.2.2 The Negative Form
		15.2.3 The Interrogative Form
		15.2.4 The Positions of Adverbials
	15.3 Distinctions Between the bǎ (把) Construction and the Non-bǎ (把) Structures
		15.3.1 Distinctions Between the bǎ (把) Construction and SVO Sentences
		15.3.2 Distinctions Between the bǎ (把) Construction and the Topic-Comment Construction
		15.3.3 When to Use the bǎ (把) Construction
			15.3.3.1 In Imperative Sentences Involving the Movement of an Object
			15.3.3.2 Transformation of an Entity from One Form to Another
			15.3.3.3 An Object Modified by an Adverb with an ``Inclusive´´ Sense
			15.3.3.4 A Pronoun as Direct Object Transferred to Another Party
			15.3.3.5 Emphasis of What the Subject Does to an Object and Its Impact
			15.3.3.6 Before a Prepositional Phrase Indicating the Direction of the Object
			15.3.3.7 When the Verb Phrase Signifying the State or Extent the Object with a State-of-Affairs Complement
			15.3.3.8 When the Predicate Verb Contains a Suffix huà (化)
			15.3.3.9 Certain Verb Collocations Preceding a Disyllabic Verb
			15.3.3.10 When the Predicate Contains an Idiomatic Set Phrase
	15.4 Common Errors and Reminders
		15.4.1 The Object of the bǎ (把) Construction Is Definite or Generic
		15.4.2 Verbs Not Applicable to the bǎ (把) Construction
		15.4.3 Use Transitive Verbs with a Sense of ``Disposal´´ Only
		15.4.4 A bǎ (把) Construction Rarely Ends in a Verb Without Any Other Element
		15.4.5 The Differences Between an Adverbial and the Result of an Action
		15.4.6 Negation and the A-Not-A Form Question of the bǎ (把) Construction
		15.4.7 No Potential Complement with the bǎ (把) Construction
		15.4.8 A Modal Verb (Including Negation) Must Precede bǎ (把)
		15.4.9 Focus on the Result/Impact of the Object Instead of the Subject
		15.4.10 No Separable Words or VO Structure with the bǎ (把) Construction
	15.5 Suggestions for Teaching
		15.5.1 Introducing the Most Commonly Used Structures First
		15.5.2 Using Props to Usher in the bǎ (把) Construction and Use It Purposely
		15.5.3 Caution When Doing Sentence Conversion
		15.5.4 Meaningful Communicative Drills with TPR (Total Physical Response)
		15.5.5 Getting Back the Lost Object
		15.5.6 Other Interactive Activities (Group Discussion)
	Further Reading
16 Special Sentences (II): The bèi (被) Construction and the Passive
	16.1 Overview
		16.1.1 The bèi (被) Construction
		16.1.2 The Notional Passive Sentences
		16.1.3 Sentences with Passive Semantics
			16.1.3.1 The Passive Verb shòu (受)
			16.1.3.2 The Passive Verb i (挨)
			16.1.3.3 The Passive Verb zāo (遭)
	16.2 Basic Structure and Word Order
		16.2.1 The Affirmative Form
		16.2.2 The Negative Form
		16.2.3 The Interrogative Form
		16.2.4 The Presence and Absence of the Agent
		16.2.5 The Positions of the Adverbials
	16.3 Distinctions Between the bèi (被) Construction and Other Structures Indicating Passive Meaning
		16.3.1 Distinction Between the bèi (被) Construction and the Notional Passive Sentences
		16.3.2 Distinction Between the bèi (被) Construction and the yóu (由) Construction
		16.3.3 Distinction Between the bèi (被) Construction and the shìde (是 的) Construction
	16.4 Common Errors and Reminders
		16.4.1 Overuse of the Passive Voice
		16.4.2 Not All Verbs Are Applicable to the bèi (被) Structure
		16.4.3 Action and Impact Must Go Hand in Hand in the bèi (被) Structure
		16.4.4 Negation Is on ``bèi´´ (被) Rather Than on the Verb
	16.5 Suggestions for Teaching
		16.5.1 What to Teach First: The bèi (被) Construction or the Notional Passive Sentences?
		16.5.2 Introduce the Structure with Students´ Assistance
		16.5.3 Be Cautious with Pattern Conversion When Practicing the bèi (被) Construction
		16.5.4 Written Exercises for Using the Proper Passive Structures
		16.5.5 Other Interactive Activities (Group Work)
	Further Reading
17 Special Sentences (III): Others
	17.1 Overview
	17.2 The shì de (是的) Construction
		17.2.1 The shì de (是的) [1] Construction
			17.2.1.1 Basic Structure and Word Order of the shì de (是的) [1] Construction
				17.2.1.1.1 The Affirmative Form
				17.2.1.1.2 The Negative Form
				17.2.1.1.3 The Interrogative Form
				17.2.1.1.4 The Position of Adverbials
		17.2.2 The shì de (是的) [2] Construction
			17.2.2.1 Basic Structure and Word Order of the shì de (是的) [2] Construction
				17.2.2.1.1 The Affirmative Form
				17.2.2.1.2 The Negative Form
				17.2.2.1.3 The Interrogative Form
		17.2.3 Distinctions Between shì  de (是的) [1] and (是的) [2] Constructions
	17.3 The Topic-Comment Construction
		17.3.1 Characterizations of Topic and the Topic-Comment Construction
		17.3.2 Basic Structure and Word Order of the Topic-Comment Construction
	17.4 The Existential Sentences
		17.4.1 Basic Structures and Word Order of the Existential Sentences
			17.4.1.1 The Affirmative Form
			17.4.1.2 The Negative Form
			17.4.1.3 The Interrogative Form
		17.4.2 Distinctions Between Some Existential Sentences and Sentences Indicating Existence
	17.5 Common Errors and Reminders
		17.5.1 Common Errors Related to the shì de (是的) Construction
			17.5.1.1 The shì de (是的) [1] Construction
			17.5.1.2 The shì de (是的) [2] Construction
		17.5.2 Common Errors Related to Topic-Comment Sentences
		17.5.3 Common Errors Related to the Existential Sentences
	17.6 Suggestions for Teaching
		17.6.1 Suggestions for Teaching the shì de (是的) Construction
			17.6.1.1 Suggestions for Teaching Type-1 shì de (是的) [1] Construction
			17.6.1.2 Suggestions for Teaching Type 2 shì de (是的) Construction
		17.6.2 Suggestions for Teaching the Topic-Comment Construction
		17.6.3 Suggestions for Teaching Existential Sentences
	Further Reading
18 Compound Sentences
	18.1 Overview
		18.1.1 What Are Compound Sentences in Chinese?
		18.1.2 Characteristics of Compound Sentences
		18.1.3 Categories of Compound Sentences
	18.2 Coordinate Compound Sentences and Connectors
		18.2.1 Coordinative Compound Sentences
		18.2.2 Alternative Compound Sentences
		18.2.3 Acceptance-Rejection Compound Sentences
		18.2.4 Additive-Progressive Compound Sentences
		18.2.5 Continuative Compound Sentences
	18.3 Subordinate Compound Sentences and Connectors
		18.3.1 Cause and Effect Compound Sentences
		18.3.2 Concessive-Adversative Compound Sentences
		18.3.3 Hypothetical Compound Sentences
		18.3.4 Conditional Compound Sentences
		18.3.5 Purposive Compound Sentences
	18.4 Contracted Compound Sentences
		18.4.1 Contracted Additive-Progressive Compound Sentences
		18.4.2 Contracted Preference Compound Sentences
		18.4.3 Contracted Cause and Effect Compound Sentences
		18.4.4 Contracted Concessive-Adversative Compound Sentences
		18.4.5 Contracted Hypothetical Compound Sentences
		18.4.6 Contracted Conditional Compound Sentences
		18.4.7 Characteristics of Contracted Compound Sentences
	18.5 Compound Sentences and Grounding
	18.6 The Use of Connector(s) in a Compound Sentence - Single or Double?
	18.7 A Supersized Sentence Containing Multiple Compound Clauses
	18.8 Common Errors and Reminders
		18.8.1 Connectors That Are Superficially Alike but Different
		18.8.2 Word Order: Chinese vs. English
		18.8.3 Missing Elements
	18.9 Suggestions for Teaching
		18.9.1 Connectors Are More Than Just Words or Sentence Patterns
		18.9.2 Networking: Review What Has Been Learned to Learn Something New
		18.9.3 Maintaining Structural Integrity
		18.9.4 Designing More Effective Exercises
	Further Reading
19 Discourse (I)
	19.1 Overview
		19.1.1 What Is Discourse
		19.1.2 Coherence and Cohesion
		19.1.3 Major Cohesive Devices in Chinese Discourse
	19.2 Reference
		19.2.1 Personal Reference
		19.2.2 Demonstrative Reference
		19.2.3 Comparative Reference
	19.3 The Topic Chain
		19.3.1 Clarification of Basic Concepts
			19.3.1.1 Marked Topics
			19.3.1.2 Unmarked Topics
			19.3.1.3 Topic Chains
		19.3.2 The Formation of a Topic Chain
		19.3.3 Types of Topic Chains
	19.4 Comment Errors and Reminders
		19.4.1 Personal References
		19.4.2 Demonstrative References
		19.4.3 Topic Chain Sentences
	19.5 Suggestions for Teaching
		19.5.1 Teach References and Topic Strategically
		19.5.2 More Coverage of Topic Chain
		19.5.3 Using Interactive Activities
		19.5.4 Peer Editing
	Further Reading
20 Discourse (II)
	20.1 Overview
	20.2 Ellipsis and Substitution
		20.2.1 Clausal Ellipsis
		20.2.2 Nominal Ellipsis
		20.2.3 Verbal Ellipsis
	20.3 Discourse Connectors
		20.3.1 Definition and Characteristics
		20.3.2 A Taxonomy of Chinese Discourse Connectors
		20.3.3 The Discourse Function of Some Particles and Words
	20.4 Common Errors and Reminders
	20.5 Suggestions for Teaching
		20.5.1 Introducing the Basic Principles of Ellipsis Early
		20.5.2 From Compound Sentences to Discourse
		20.5.3 Some Practical Ideas
			20.5.3.1 Identifying the Main Ideas for Better Comprehension and Composition
			20.5.3.2 Attending to Discourse Modes and Text Structures
			20.5.3.3 More Specific Guidelines for Composition Assignments
			20.5.3.4 The Importance of Revision and Editing
	Further Reading
Further Reading
Index