A Practical Guide to Critical Thinking: Deciding What to Do and Believe

CONTENTS......Page 10
Preface......Page 16
Note to Instructors......Page 18
1 The Nature and Value of Critical Thinking......Page 22
1.1 The Nature of Critical Thinking......Page 23
1.2 Critical Thinking and Knowledge......Page 27
1.2.1 Truth......Page 28
1.2.1.1 Realism, Relativism, and Nihilism......Page 29
1.2.1.2 Relativism and the Argument from Disagreement......Page 31
1.2.2 Belief......Page 34
1.2.3 Justification......Page 36
1.2.3.1 Emotional and Pragmatic Reasons......Page 37
1.2.3.2 Epistemic Reasons......Page 38
1.2.4 Good Reasons Are Sufficient and Acceptable......Page 42
1.2.4.1 When Evidence Conflicts......Page 43
Exercise 1.2......Page 45
1.3.1 Belief and Prejudice......Page 46
1.3.2 Making Up Your Own Mind......Page 47
Exercise 1.3......Page 50
1.4 Mistakes to Avoid......Page 52
1.5 Practical Strategies......Page 55
1.6 From Theory to Practice: Applying What We Have Learned......Page 56
2.1 The Place of Definitions in Critical Thinking......Page 60
2.2 Assertion......Page 62
2.2.1 Propositions......Page 63
2.2.2 Assertion Test......Page 65
Exercise 2.2.2......Page 69
2.3 Constructing and Evaluating Definitions......Page 70
2.3.1.2 Neessary and Sufficient Conditions Are Related in Complex Ways......Page 72
2.3.1.3 Narrow and Broad Definitions......Page 73
2.3.1.4 Definitions in Practical Life......Page 74
2.3.2 Expand......Page 76
2.3.3 Example......Page 77
2.3.4 Contrast......Page 78
Exercise 2.3......Page 79
2.4 Thinking Critically about Frameworks......Page 80
2.5 Clarifying Beliefs and Problems......Page 82
Exercise 2.5......Page 86
2.6 Technical Definitions......Page 87
2.7 Meaning in Advertisements......Page 89
Exercise 2.7......Page 91
2.8 Mistakes to Avoid......Page 92
2.9 Practical Strategies......Page 93
2.10 From Theory to Practice: Applying What We Have Learned......Page 94
3.1 Critical Thinking and Arguments......Page 96
3.2 Identifying Premises and Conclusions......Page 101
Exercise 3.2......Page 106
3.3.1 The Words Test......Page 108
3.3.2 The False Premise Test......Page 109
3.3.3 Circumstantial Reasons......Page 112
Exercise 3.3......Page 114
3.4 Subarguments......Page 115
Exercise 3.4......Page 117
3.5 Evaluating Logical Support......Page 118
Exercise 3.5......Page 121
3.6 Missing Premises......Page 122
Exercise 3.6......Page 124
3.7 Practical Strategies......Page 125
3.8 From Theory to Practice: Applying What We Have Learned......Page 126
4 Acceptable Reasons......Page 128
4.1.1 Reliability......Page 130
4.1.2 Undermining and Overriding Evidence......Page 132
4.2 Observation......Page 135
4.3 Memory......Page 138
4.4 Testimony......Page 140
4.4.1 Appropriate Testimony......Page 141
4.4.2 Competent Testimony......Page 142
4.4.3 Unbiased Testimony......Page 143
4.4.4 Advertising......Page 145
4.4.5 News Reports......Page 147
Exercise 4.4......Page 150
4.5 Measurement......Page 152
4.5.1 Measurement Consistency......Page 155
4.5.2 Measurement Precision......Page 156
4.5.3 Surveys......Page 157
Exercise 4.5......Page 162
4.6 Mistakes to Avoid......Page 164
4.8 From Theory to Practice: Applying What We Have Learned......Page 165
5 Reasoning About Alternatives and Necessary and Sufficient Conditions......Page 168
5.1.1 The Meaning of Disjunctions......Page 170
5.1.2 Denying a Disjunct......Page 171
5.1.3 False Disjunctions......Page 172
5.1.4 When Are Disjunctions Acceptable?......Page 173
5.1.5 Exclusive Disjunctions......Page 175
5.1.6 Criticizing Reasoning about Alternatives......Page 177
Exercise 5.1......Page 178
5.2 Reasoning about Necessary and Sufficient Conditions......Page 180
5.2.1.1 Sufficient Conditions......Page 181
5.2.1.3 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions......Page 182
Exercise 5.2.1......Page 184
5.2.2 Valid Forms of Reasoning about Necessary and Sufficient Conditions......Page 186
5.2.3 Invalid Forms of Reasoning about Necessary and Sufficient Conditions......Page 190
5.2.4 Making It Explicit......Page 192
Exercise 5.2.4......Page 193
5.2.5 When are Claims about Necessary and Sufficient Conditions Acceptable?......Page 194
5.3 Reasoning with Definitions and Standards......Page 195
5.4 Reasoning about Causal Conditions......Page 200
5.4.1 The Meaning of Causal Claims......Page 201
5.4.2 Reasoning with Causal Claims......Page 202
5.4.3 When Are Causal Claims Acceptable?......Page 204
5.4.3.1 Discovering Necessary Causal Conditions......Page 205
5.4.3.2 Discovering Sufficient Causal Conditions......Page 206
5.3.4.4 Concomitant Variation......Page 207
5.3.4.5 Experimenting and Simulating......Page 208
Exercise 5.4......Page 211
5.5 Mistakes to Avoid......Page 213
5.6 Practical Strategies......Page 215
6 Reasoning by Analogy......Page 216
6.1.1 Examples......Page 217
6.1.2 Is Reasoning by Analogy Valid?......Page 218
6.1.3 Relevant Similarity......Page 219
6.1.4 When Is an Analogical Claim True or Acceptable?......Page 221
Exercise 6.1......Page 225
6.2 Reasoning Using Representational Analogy......Page 226
6.2.1 Reasoning with Samples......Page 228
6.2.2.1 Sample Size......Page 229
6.2.2.2 Random Samples......Page 230
6.2.2.3 Self-Selected Samples......Page 231
6.2.3 Reasoning with Models and Maps......Page 234
Exercise 6.2......Page 236
6.3 Mistakes to Avoid......Page 238
6.4 From Theory to Practice: Applying What We Have Learned......Page 239
7 Critical Thinking in Action......Page 240
7.1.1 Identifying a Discipline's Key Concepts......Page 241
7.1.2 Clarifying a Discipline's Key Concepts......Page 243
7.1.3 Identifying a Discipline's Sources of Evidence......Page 244
7.1.4 Identifying a Discipline's Modes of Reasoning......Page 246
7.2 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 248
7.3 Thinking Critically in Your Own Decision Making......Page 249
7.3.2 Clarify Your Reasons......Page 250
7.3.3 Show That Your Reasons are Acceptable and Sufficient......Page 251
7.3.4 Identify and Respond to Alternatives......Page 252
7.4.1 Ask Open-Ended Clarification Questions......Page 253
7.4.2 Withhold Disagreement and Agreement......Page 254
7.4.3 Keep Emotional Distance......Page 255
7.5 From Theory to Practice: Applying what We Have Learned......Page 256
APPENDIX A: MISTAKES TO AVOID......Page 258
APPENDIX B: PRACTICAL STRATEGIES......Page 266
INDEX......Page 272