A History of the English Language (2006)

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Figures......Page 8
Tables......Page 10
Contributors......Page 11
Preface......Page 13
Acknowledgements......Page 15
1.1 Introduction......Page 17
1.2 The roots of English......Page 19
1.3 Early history: immigration and invasion......Page 24
1.4 Later history: internal migration, emigration, immigration again......Page 33
1.5 The form of historical evidence......Page 45
1.6 The surviving historical texts......Page 51
1.7 Indirect evidence......Page 52
1.8 Why does language change?......Page 53
1.9 Recent and current change......Page 56
2.1 History, change and variation......Page 59
2.2 The extent of change: ‘vertical’ and ‘horizontal’ history......Page 62
2.3.1 Principles......Page 63
2.3.2 ModE vowel inventories......Page 64
2.3.3 ModE consonant inventories......Page 66
2.3.5 Modern English morphology......Page 67
2.4.1 Time, space and texts......Page 68
2.4.2 The Old English vowels......Page 69
2.4.4 Stress......Page 70
2.4.5.1 The noun phrase: noun, pronoun and adjective......Page 71
2.4.5.2 The verb......Page 73
2.5.2.1 Early quantity adjustments......Page 75
2.5.2.2 The old diphthongs, low vowels and /y( )/......Page 76
2.5.2.4 Weak vowel mergers......Page 77
2.6.1 The problem of ME spelling......Page 78
2.6.2.1 The vowels: MEOSL and the story of OE......Page 79
2.6.2.2 ‘Dropping aitches’ and postvocalic /x/......Page 81
2.6.2.3 Loss of final -e......Page 82
2.6.2.4 Stress......Page 83
2.6.3.2 The morphology/phonology interaction......Page 85
2.6.3.3 The noun phrase: gender, case and number......Page 86
2.6.3.4 The personal pronoun......Page 88
2.6.3.5 Verb morphology: introduction......Page 91
2.6.3.6 The verb: tense marking......Page 92
2.6.3.7 The verb: person and number......Page 94
2.6.3.8 The verb ‘to be’......Page 95
2.6.3.9 The infinitive and participles......Page 96
2.7.2 Phonology: the Great Vowel Shift......Page 97
2.7.3 The mid-sixteenth-century state of play: John Hart’s testimony......Page 99
2.7.4 English vowel phonology, c.1550–1800......Page 100
2.7.5.1 Loss of postvocalic /r/......Page 107
2.7.5.3 The story of /x/......Page 109
2.7.6 Stress......Page 110
2.7.7.1 Nouns and adjectives......Page 111
2.7.7.2 The personal pronouns......Page 112
2.7.7.3 Pruning luxuriance: ‘anomalous verbs’......Page 114
2.7.7.4 Northern visitors: the -s ending in the third singular and plural......Page 117
2.8.2.1 The evolution of Lengthening I......Page 120
2.8.2.2 Lengthening II......Page 122
3.1 Introduction......Page 125
3.2 Internal syntax of the noun phrase......Page 126
3.2.1 The head of the noun phrase......Page 130
3.2.2 Determiners......Page 132
3.2.3 Pre- and postdeterminers......Page 136
3.2.4 Modifiers......Page 138
3.3 The verbal group......Page 145
3.3.1 Tense......Page 147
3.3.2 Aspect......Page 151
3.3.3 Mood......Page 158
3.3.4 The story of the modals......Page 162
3.3.5 Voice......Page 168
3.3.6 Rise of do......Page 170
3.3.7 Internal structure of the Aux phrase......Page 174
3.4.1 Subjects......Page 176
3.4.2 Objects......Page 180
3.4.3 Impersonal constructions......Page 182
3.4.4 Passive......Page 184
3.4.5 Subordinate clauses......Page 187
3.5.1 Introduction......Page 197
3.5.2 Developments in the order of subject and verb......Page 198
3.5.3 Developments in the order of object and verb......Page 201
3.5.4 Developments in the order of direct objects and indirect objects......Page 204
3.5.5 Developments in the position of particles and adverbs......Page 206
3.5.6 Consequences......Page 209
4.1.1 The function of lexemes......Page 215
4.1.3 Lexical change......Page 217
4.1.4 Lexical structures......Page 220
4.1.5 Principles of word formation......Page 222
4.1.6 Change of meaning......Page 231
4.2.1 Introduction......Page 232
4.2.2 The stratification of the vocabulary......Page 233
4.2.3 Foreign influence......Page 236
4.2.4 Word formation......Page 242
4.2.4.1 Noun compounds......Page 245
4.2.4.2 Compound adjectives......Page 249
4.2.4.3 Compound verbs......Page 251
4.2.4.4 Nominal suffixes......Page 254
4.2.4.5 Adjectival suffixes......Page 257
4.2.4.7 Zero derivation......Page 258
4.2.4.8 Nominal derivatives......Page 259
4.2.4.10 Verbal derivation......Page 260
4.2.4.12 The typological status of Old English word formation......Page 261
4.3.1 Introduction......Page 262
4.3.2.2 French......Page 265
4.3.3 Word formation......Page 266
4.3.3.1 Compounding......Page 269
4.3.3.3 Suffixation......Page 270
4.3.3.4 Zero derivation......Page 271
4.4.1 Introduction......Page 272
4.4.2.1 Latin......Page 273
4.4.2.2 French......Page 274
4.4.2.6 Other languages......Page 275
4.4.3.1 Compounding......Page 276
4.4.3.2 Prefixation......Page 277
4.4.3.3 Suffixation......Page 279
4.5.1 Introduction......Page 282
4.5.2 Borrowing......Page 283
4.5.3 Word formation......Page 284
4.6 Conclusion......Page 286
5.1 Introduction......Page 287
5.2.1 Selection......Page 290
5.2.2 Acceptance......Page 291
5.2.3 Diffusion......Page 292
5.2.4 Maintenance......Page 0
5.2.5 Elaboration of function......Page 295
5.2.6 Codification......Page 298
5.2.7 Prescription......Page 300
5.2.8 Conclusion......Page 302
5.3.1 Introduction......Page 303
5.3.2 Spelling......Page 305
5.3.3 Grammar......Page 307
5.3.4 Vocabulary......Page 315
5.3.5 Registers......Page 319
Electric phenomena of Tourmaline......Page 321
5.3.6 Pronunciation......Page 322
5.3.7 Conclusion......Page 326
6.1.1 The status of proper names......Page 328
6.1.2 Namables......Page 331
6.1.3 Properhood and tropes......Page 332
6.2.2 Source materials for English onomastics......Page 333
6.3.1 Preliminaries......Page 334
6.3.2 The earliest English personal names......Page 335
6.3.3 The impact of the Norman Conquest......Page 336
6.3.4 New names of the Renaissance and Reformation......Page 337
6.3.5 The modern period......Page 338
6.3.6 The most recent trends......Page 340
6.3.8 Evidence for pet-names (hypocoristics) from early times to the present......Page 341
6.4.1 The origin of surnames......Page 343
6.4.2 Some problems with surname interpretation......Page 344
6.4.3 Types of surname......Page 345
6.4.4 The linguistic structure of surnames......Page 347
6.4.6 Surnaming since about 1500......Page 350
6.5.1 Preliminaries......Page 351
6.5.2 The ethnic and linguistic context of English names......Page 352
6.5.3 The explanation of place-names......Page 354
6.5.4 English-language place-names......Page 356
6.5.5 Place-names and urban history......Page 361
6.5.6 Place-names in languages arriving after English......Page 363
6.6 Conclusion......Page 366
Appendix: abbreviations of English county-names......Page 367
7.1 Introduction......Page 368
7.2 Old English......Page 369
7.3 Middle English......Page 375
7.4 A Scottish interlude......Page 381
7.5 Early Modern English......Page 383
7.6 Modern English......Page 386
7.7 Other dialects......Page 398
8.1.1 Explorers and settlers meet Native Americans......Page 400
8.1.2 Maintenance and change......Page 401
8.1.3 Waves of immigrant colonists......Page 402
8.1.5 Regional origins of colonial English......Page 403
8.1.6 Tracing linguistic features to Britain......Page 404
8.1.7 Place-names: Native American, French, Dutch, Spanish, English......Page 406
8.2 The national period: 1776–1900......Page 407
8.2.1 American language or American English? Noah Webster schools the nation......Page 408
8.2.2 Prescriptivism......Page 409
8.2.3 Lexical borrowings......Page 410
8.3.1 Syntactic patterns in American English and British English......Page 412
8.3.2 Regional patterns in American English......Page 414
8.3.3 Dictionary of American Regional English (DARE)......Page 415
8.3.4 Atlas of North American English (ANAE)......Page 420
8.3.5.1 Socioeconomic status......Page 424
8.3.6.1 African American English (AAE)......Page 426
8.3.6.2 Latino English......Page 428
8.3.7 English in Canada......Page 429
8.3.8 Social meaning and attitudes......Page 432
8.3.9 Official languages in a multilingual North America......Page 433
Appendix: abbreviations of US state-names......Page 434
9.1 Introduction......Page 436
9.2 The recency of world English......Page 438
9.3 The reasons for the emergence of world English......Page 442
9.3.3 The press......Page 443
9.3.5 Broadcasting......Page 444
9.3.7 Popular music......Page 445
9.3.9 Education......Page 446
9.3.10 Communications......Page 447
9.4 The future of English as a world language......Page 448
9.5 An English family of languages?......Page 451
2 Phonology and morphology......Page 456
4 Vocabulary......Page 457
6 Names......Page 458
7 English in Britain......Page 459
9 English worldwide......Page 460
References......Page 461
Index......Page 496