A Historical Grammar of the Maya Language of Yucatan 1557–2000

CONTENTS
PREFACE
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
	1. Terminology
	2. Sources
	3. Methodology
	3.1. Palaeography
	3.2. Concordances
	3.3. Dating Grammatical Changes in the Written Record
	4. Scribes
	Note
CHAPTER 2: ORTHOGRAPHY
	1. Phonetic Segments
	2. Orthographic Correspondences
	2.1. Consonants
	2.1.1. Velar and Laryngeal “h”
	2.1.2. Glottal Stop
	2.1.3. Other Velar Consonants
	2.1.4. Glides
	2.1.5. Liquids
	2.1.6. Voiceless Bilabial Stop and Labiodental Fricative
	2.1.7. Ejectives
	2.1.8. Double Consonants
	2.2. Vowels
	2.3. Abbreviations
	Notes
CHAPTER 3: PHONOLOGY
	1. Root-Based Phonological Processes
	1.1. Canonical Root Shapes
	1.2. Co-Occurrence Restrictions
	1.3. Vowel Grades
	1.4. Affixes
	1.4.1. Prefixes
	1.4.2. Suffixes
	2. Phonological Processes
	2.1. Stems
	2.2. Consonantal Processes
	2.2.1. Identical-Consonant Clusters
	2.2.1.1. Sonorant Clusters
	2.2.1.2. Obstruent Clusters
	2.2.1.3. Fricative Clusters
	2.2.2. Other Consonant Clusters
	2.2.2.1. Prefixes
	2.2.2.2. Suffixes
	2.2.2.2.1. Debuccalization
	2.2.2.2.2. Vowel Insertion
	2.2.2.2.3. Liquid Deletion
	2.2.2.2.4. Interrogatives with -x
	2.2.2.2.5. Nasal Assimilation
	2.3. Vocalic Processes
	2.3.1. The Special Status of Laryngeals
	2.3.2. Accent and Pitch
	2.3.2.1. Stress
	2.3.2.2. Pitch Accent
	2.3.2.3. Yucatecan Tonogenesis
	2.3.3. Evidence for Schwa in Colonial Yucatec
	3. Summary of Phonological Changes Through Time
	Notes
CHAPTER 4: PRONOUNS
	1. Dependent Pronouns
	1.1. Dependent Pronouns in Colonial Yucatec
	1.2. Dependent Pronouns in Modern Yucatec
	1.3. Historical Change in Clitic Pronouns
	2. Independent Pronouns
	2.1. Independent Pronouns in Colonial Yucatec
	2.2. Independent Pronouns in Modern Yucatec
	2.3. Historical Change in Independent Pronouns
	3. Indirect Object Pronouns
	4. Stative Pronouns
	5. Independent Possessive Pronouns
	6. Reflexive Pronouns
	7. Demonstrative Pronouns
	8. Interrogative and Relative Pronouns
	9. Indefinite Pronouns
	9.1. Indefinite Pronouns in Colonial Yucatec
	9.2. Indefinite Pronouns in Modern Yucatec
	9.3. The Historical Status of Topicalized Indefinite Pronouns
	10. Summary of Pronominal Changes Through Time
CHAPTER 5: TENSE/ASPECT AND MOOD
	1. Aspectual Verb Stems
	1.1. Intransitive Verbs
	1.1.1. Aspectual Inflection of Intransitive Verbs in Colonial Yucatec
	1.1.2. Aspectual Inflection of Intransitive Verbs in Modern Yucatec
	1.1.3. The Prophetic Future Marked by -om
	1.2. Transitive Verbs
	1.2.1. Aspectual Inflection of Transitive Verbs in Colonial Yucatec
	1.2.2. Aspectual Inflection of Transitive Verbs in Modern Yucatec
	1.2.3. Semantic Implications of Aspectual and Mood Suffixes
	2. Aspectual Head Words and Clitic Particles
	2.1. Aspectual Clitic Particles Associated with the Perfective Stem
	2.1.1. The Functional Difference Between t(i)- and Ø-Perfective Stems
	2.1.2. Historical Change in Aspectual Clitic Particles Associated with the Perfective Stem
	2.2. Aspectual Head Words and Clitic Particles Associated with the Imperfective Stem
	2.2.1. Historical Change in Aspectual Head Words Associated with the Imperfective Stem
	2.3. Aspectual Head Words Associated with the Subjunctive Stem
	3. Semantic Implications of Aspect in Modern Yucatec
	4. The “Present Tense”
	4.1. Coronel’s Paradigm of the “Present Tense”
	4.2. The Use of the “Present Tense” to Express Intention
	5. Aspectual Stem Suffixes in Adverbial Focus Contexts
	5.1. Intransitive Stem Suffixes that Co-Occur with Focused Adverbial Particles
	5.2. Transitive Stem Suffixes that Co-Occur with Focused Adverbial Particles
	6. The Vanishing Historical Past
	7. Summary of Changes in Aspectual Head Words and Suffixes Through Time
	Notes
CHAPTER 6: INTRANSITIVE VERBS
	1. Root Intransitives
	1.1. Verbs of Motion
	1.2. Other Root Intransitives
	2. Derived Intransitives
	2.1. Derived Intransitives Based on Root Transitives
	2.2. Inchoatives or Versives
	2.2.1. Inchoatives Derived with -h
	2.2.2. Inchoatives Derived with -ch-ah
	2.2.3. Inchoatives Derived with -tal
	2.3. Celeritives
	2.4. Agentless Passives
	3. Other Intransitives
	4. Pluralization
	5. Intransitive Compounds
	6. Intransitive Phrases
	7. Summary of Changes in Intransitive Verbs Through Time
	Notes
CHAPTER 7: TRANSITIVE VERBS
	1. Voice
	1.1. Voice in Root Transitives
	1.1.1. The Active Voice of Root Transitives
	1.1.2. The Passive Voice of Root Transitives
	1.1.3. The Antipassive Voice of Root Transitives
	1.1.4. The Middle Voice of Root Transitives
	1.2. Voice in Derived Transitives
	1.2.1. Voice in Causative Stems Derived from Root Intransitives
	1.2.1.1. The Active Voice in Causatives Derived from Root Intransitives
	1.2.1.2. The Passive Voice in Causatives Derived from Root Intransitives
	1.2.1.3. The Antipassive Voice in Causatives Derived from Root Intransitives
	1.2.1.4. Voice in Other Causative Stems
	1.2.1.4.1. Voice in Causatives Derived from Celeritive Stems
	1.2.1.4.2. Voice in Causatives Marked by -bes
	1.2.2. Voice in Transitives Derived from Nominal Roots and Stems
	1.2.2.1. The Active Voice in Transitives Derived from Nouns
	1.2.2.2. The Passive Voice in Transitives Derived from Nouns
	1.2.2.3. The Antipassive Voice in Transitives Derived from Nouns
	1.2.3. The Passive Voice in Transitive Roots with a Medial Laryngeal
	1.2.4. Voice in Transitive Verbs Derived from Root Transitives
	1.2.5. Voice in Transitives Derived from Spanish Loans
	1.2.5.1. The Active Voice in Transitives Derived from Spanish Loans
	1.2.5.2. The Passive Voice in Transitives Derived from Spanish Loans
	1.2.5.3. The Antipassive Voice in Transitives Derived from Spanish Loans
	1.2.6. Voice in Transitives Derived from Adjectives, Particles, Positionals, and Affects
	1.2.6.1. The Active Voice in Transitives Derived from Adjectives, Particles, Positionals, and Affects
	1.2.6.2. The Passive Voice in Transitives Derived from Adjectives, Particles, Positionals, and Affects
	1.2.6.3. The Antipassive Voice in Transitives Derived from Adjectives, Particles, Positionals, and Affects
	2. Usative Verbs
	3. Defective Verbs
	3.1. Defective and Normal Versions of kat
	3.2. Defective and Normal Versions of ohel
	3.3. Defective and Normal Versions of kah=ol
	4. Pluralization
	5. Transitive Compounds
	5.1. Noun Incorporation
	5.2. Adjective Incorporation
	5.3. Transitive Compounds with Two Transitive Roots
	5.4. Dialectal Variation in the Formation of Compounds in the Calepino de Motul
	6. Transitive Phrases
	7. Summary of Changes in Transitive Verbs Through Time
	Notes
CHAPTER 8: NOUNS
	1. Nominal Roots
	1.1. Inflection for Possession
	1.2. Other Considerations
	1.2.1. Body-Part Terms
	1.2.2. Kinship Terms
	1.2.3. Reflexive and Reciprocal Nouns
	2. Derived Nouns
	2.1. Agentive Nouns
	2.1.1. Marking Agentive Nouns for Ownership with -nal
	2.1.2. Agentives Marked by -yah
	2.2. Instrumental Nouns
	2.3. Abstract Nouns
	2.3.1. Abstract Nouns Derived from Adjectival Roots and Stems
	2.3.2. Abstract Nouns Derived from Nominal Roots and Stems
	2.3.3. Abstract Nouns Derived from Particle Roots and Stems
	2.3.4. Abstract Nouns Derived from Transitive Roots
	2.3.5. Abstract Nouns Derived from Intransitive Stems
	2.4. Verbal Nouns
	2.5. Relational Nouns
	2.6. Noun Classifiers
	2.6.1. Noun Classifiers with Faunal Terms
	2.6.1.1. Avian Terms
	2.6.1.1.1. Avian Terms that Co-Occur with Ah
	2.6.1.1.2. An Avian Term that Co-Occurs with Ix
	2.6.1.1.3. Avian Terms that Do Not Co-Occur with Noun Classifiers
	2.6.1.2. Mammalian Terms
	2.6.1.2.1. Mammalian Terms that Co-Occur with Ah
	2.6.1.2.2. Mammalian Terms that Do Not Co-Occur with Noun Classifiers
	2.6.1.3. Reptilian Terms
	2.6.1.3.1. Reptilian Terms that Co-Occur with Ah or Ix
	2.6.1.3.2. Reptilian Terms that Do Not Co-Occur with Noun Classifiers
	2.6.1.4. Terms for Insects and Worms
	2.6.1.4.1. Terms for Insects and Worms that Co-Occur with Ah
	2.6.1.4.2. Terms for Insects that Co-Occur with Ix
	2.6.1.4.3. Terms for Insects and Worms that Do Not Co-Occur with Noun Classifiers
	2.6.1.5. Terms for Fish
	2.6.1.5.1. Terms for Fish that Co-Occur with Ah or Ix
	2.6.1.5.2. Terms for Fish that Do Not Co-Occur with Noun Classifiers
	2.6.2. Noun Classifiers with Botanical Terms
	2.6.2.1. Botanical Terms that Co-Occur with Ah
	2.6.2.2. Botanical Terms that Co-Occur with Ix
	2.6.2.3. Botanical Terms that Do Not Co-Occur with Noun Classifiers
	2.6.3. The Function of Ah and Ix in Faunal and Botanical Terms
	2.6.4. Toponyms
	2.6.4.1. Toponyms that Co-Occur with Ix
	2.6.4.2. Toponyms that Do Not Co-Occur with Ix
	2.6.5. Noun Classifiers with Disease Terms
	3. Nominal Compounds
	3.1. Double Noun Compounds
	3.2. Adjective-Plus-Noun Compounds
	4. Nominal Phrases
	5. Summary of Changes in Nouns Through Time
	Notes
CHAPTER 9: NUMBERS AND NUMERAL CLASSIFIERS
	1. Number Words
	2. Numeral Classifiers
	2.1. The Structure of Numeral Classifier Phrases
	2.2. Numeral Classifiers as Surrogate Adverbs in Colonial Yucatec
	2.3. Historical Change in Numeral Classifiers
	Notes
CHAPTER 10: ADJECTIVES
	1. Adjectival Roots
	2. Derived Adjectives
	2.1. Adjectives Marked by -il
	2.1.1. Adjectives Derived from Nominal Roots with -il
	2.1.2. Adjectives Derived from Adjectival Roots with -il
	2.2. Adjectives Derived from Nominal Roots with -tzil
	2.3. Adjectives Derived from Nominal Roots with -liz
	2.4. Adjectives Marked by -ach or -Vch
	2.4.1. Adjectives Derived from Adjectival Roots with -ach or -Vch
	2.4.2. Adjectives Derived from Nominal Roots with -ach
	2.5. Adjectives Marked by -ben
	2.5.1. Potential Adjectives Derived from Nominal Roots
	2.5.2. Potential Adjectives Derived from Verbal Roots
	2.6. Adjectives Derived from Verbal Roots or Stems with -lac or -lic
	2.6.1. Adjectives Derived from Celeritive Stems
	2.6.2. Adjectives Derived from Inchoative Stems
	2.6.3. Adjectives Derived from Transitive Roots with -lac
	2.6.4. Adjectives Derived from Positional Roots with -lac or -lic
	2.7. Positional Adjectives Marked by -cabal
	2.8. Derived Adjectives Marked by -en
	2.9. Derived Adjectives Marked by -em or -om
	2.10. Adjectives Derived from CVC Transitive and Positional Roots Without Suffixation
	3. Participles
	3.1. Participles Marked by -(a)an
	3.2. Participles Marked by -bil
	3.3. Participles Marked by -Vl
	4. Pluralization
	5. Adjectival Compounds
	6. Adjectival Phrases
	7. Summary of Adjectival Changes Through Time
	Notes
CHAPTER 11: POSITIONALS
	1. Positional Adjectives
	1.1. Positional Adjectives in Colonial Yucatec
	1.2. Positional Adjectives in Modern Yucatec
	2. Positional Verbs
	2.1. Positional Verbs in Colonial Yucatec
	2.2. Positional Verbs in Modern Yucatec
	3. Summary of Changes in Positionals Through Time
CHAPTER 12: AFFECTS
	1. Verbal Affects
	1.1. Verbal Affects in Colonial Yucatec
	1.1.1. Verbal Affects Marked by -m
	1.1.2. Verbal Affects Marked by -ancil/-ancal
	1.2. Verbal Affects in Modern Yucatec
	1.2.1. Verbal Affects Marked by -b’-al
	1.2.2. Verbal Affects Marked by -(á)ankil
	2. Adjectival Affects
	2.1. Adjectival Affects in Colonial Yucatec
	2.1.1. Adjectival Affects Marked by -ci
	2.1.2. Adjectival Affects Marked by -nac
	2.2. Adjectival Affects in Modern Yucatec
	3. Adjectival Compounds Derived from Basic Color Terms
	3.1. Color Compounds in Colonial Yucatec
	3.2. Color Compounds in Modern Yucatec
	4. Sound Symbolism
	5. Some Semantic Foci of Affects
	6. Summary of Changes in Affects Through Time
	Note
CHAPTER 13: REDUPLICATION
	1. Adjectival Reduplication
	1.1. Reduplicated Adjectives Based on Adjectival Roots
	1.2. Reduplicated Adjectives Based on Affect Stems
	1.2.1. Reduplicated Adjectives Marked by -ci
	1.2.2. Reduplicated Adjectives Marked by -nac
	2. Participial Reduplication
	2.1. Reduplicated Participles Marked by -Vc
	2.2. Reduplicated Participles with Infixes
	2.2.1. Reduplicated Participles Marked by -Vl-
	2.2.2. Reduplicated Participles Marked by -uN- and -aN
	2.2.3. Reduplicated Participles Marked by -man-
	2.3. Reduplicated Participles Derived from Verbal Roots without Affixes
	2.3.1. Reduplicated Participles Derived from Intransitive Roots without Affixes
	2.3.2. Reduplicated Participles Derived from Transitive Roots without Affixes
	3. Verbal Reduplication
	3.1. Verbal Reduplication without Affixes
	3.2. Reduplicated Transitive Verbs in Compound Stems
	3.3. Verbal Reduplication with Infixes
	4. Nominal Reduplication
	5. Reduplicated Particles
	5.1. Reduplicated Particle Stems without Suffixes
	5.2. Reduplicated Particle Stems with Infixes
	6. Reduplicated Number Words
	7. Stem Reduplication
	8. Phrase Reduplication
	8.1. Reduplicated Phrases Composed of Simple and Compound Expressions
	8.2. Semantic and Syntactic Parallelism
	9. Conclusions
	Notes
CHAPTER 14: PARTICLES
	1. Particle Roots
	2. Derived Particles
	3. Adverbial Particles
	3.1. Temporal Adverbs
	3.2. Locative Adverbs
	3.3. Manner Adverbs
	4. Interrogative Particles
	5. Negative Particles
	6. Conjunctive Particles
	7. Prepositional Particles
	8. Modal Particles
	9. Reportative Particles
	10. Exclamatory Particles
	11. Particle Compounds
	12. Particle Phrases
	13. Summary of Changes in Particles Through Time
CHAPTER 15: DEICTIC PARTICLES
	1. Terminal Deictics
	1.1. Terminal Deictics in Colonial Yucatec
	1.2. Terminal Deictics in Modern Yucatec
	1.3. Historical Change in Terminal Deictics
	2. Initial Deictics and Deictic Frames
	2.1. Initial Deictics in Colonial Yucatec
	2.2. Initial Deictics in Modern Yucatec
	2.3. Embedded Terminal Deictics
	2.4. Historical Change in Initial Deictics and Deictic Frames
	2.4.1. Vowel Fusion in [y]-Final Initial Deictics
	2.4.2. Retention of /l/ in Terminal Deictics that Immediately Follow Initial Deictics Ending in a Laryngeal Consonant
	3. Summary of Changes in Deictic Particles Through Time
	Notes
CHAPTER 16: SYNTAX AND DISCOURSE
	1. Basic Word Order
	1.1. Basic Word Order in Transitive Clauses
	1.2. Basic Word Order in Intransitive Clauses
	1.2.1. Basic Word Order in Passive Clauses
	1.2.2. Basic Word Order in Antipassive Clauses
	1.3. Indirect-Object Advancement
	2. Focused Word Orders
	2.1. Agent Focus
	2.2. Patient Focus
	2.3. Subject Focus
	2.4. Adverbial Focus
	2.4.1. Manner Adverbial Focus
	2.4.1.1. Focused Manner Adverbials with Transitive Stems
	2.4.1.2. Focused Manner Adverbials with Intransitive Stems
	2.4.2. Temporal Adverbial Focus
	2.4.2.1. Focused Temporal Adverbials with Transitive Stems
	2.4.2.2. Focused Temporal Adverbials with Intransitive Stems
	2.4.3. Locative Adverbial Focus
	2.4.3.1. Focused Locative Adverbials with Transitive Stems
	2.4.3.2. Focused Locative Adverbials with Intransitive Stems
	2.5. Information Questions
	2.6. Conclusions
	3. Topicalization
	4. Stative and Equational Clauses
	4.1. The Formation of Stative Clauses
	4.2. The Existential Predicate, yan
	4.2.1. Expressing “to Have” with yan
	4.2.2. yan in Locational Clauses
	5. Double Verb Sequences
	5.1. Aspectual Head Verbs in Double Verb Sequences
	5.2. Complement Constructions
	5.3. Coordinate and Subordinate Clauses
	6. Imperatives
	6.1. Positive Commands
	6.2. Negative Commands
	7. The Declarative Mode
	8. Summary of Changes in Syntax and Discourse Through Time
	Notes
Appendix: Documentary Sources of Maya Clauses, Phrases, and Allusions
References Cited