A handbook of environmental toxicology: human disorders and ecotoxicology

Cover......Page 1
 A Handbook of Environmental Toxicology Human Disorders and Ecotoxicology......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Contributors......Page 22
 Major Contamination Incidents......Page 26
  Faltering progress......Page 30
   Part I Biogenic compounds......Page 31
   Part III Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)......Page 32
   Part VI Particulates and plastics......Page 33
   Part IX Outlook and conclusions......Page 34
  Expectations......Page 35
  Disclaimer......Page 36
  References......Page 37
 Definition of Terms and Acronyms......Page 38
 References......Page 51
 Part I......Page 52
 1.2 Introduction......Page 54
 1.3 Terminology......Page 55
  1.6.1 Toxic glycosides......Page 56
  1.6.6 Protein phytotoxins......Page 59
  1.7.1 Effects on insect herbivores......Page 60
  1.7.2 Defence against nematodes......Page 63
  1.7.4 Herbicidal potential......Page 64
 1.9 Conclusions......Page 65
  References......Page 66
 2.1 Abstract......Page 70
 2.2 Introduction......Page 71
 2.4 Pathways in Mycotoxin Contamination of Foods......Page 72
  2.4.2 Aflatoxins and cyclopiazonic acid......Page 73
  2.4.3 Ochratoxins and citrinin......Page 74
  2.4.5 Fusarium mycotoxins......Page 75
  2.5.2 Mycotoxicosis: Case reports......Page 76
  2.5.3 Carcinogenesis......Page 77
 2.6 Risk Assessment......Page 78
 2.7 Mitigation of Risk......Page 79
 2.8 Conclusions......Page 80
  References......Page 81
 3.2 Introduction......Page 84
  3.3.2 Cytotoxins......Page 85
   3.3.3.2 Anatoxin-a(S)......Page 86
  3.3.6 Neurotoxic amino acids......Page 87
  3.4.1 Water......Page 88
 3.5 Toxicological Assessment......Page 90
  3.6.1 Prevention......Page 91
  3.6.3 Biological processing......Page 92
  References......Page 93
 4.1 Abstract......Page 100
 4.2 Introduction......Page 102
 4.3 Pathways of Amino Acid Metabolism......Page 103
  4.4.1 Glutamate and γ -aminobutyric acid (GABA)......Page 104
  4.4.2 Proline......Page 105
  4.4.3 Arginine and ornithine: Functional metabolism......Page 106
   4.4.3.1 Polyamines......Page 107
  4.4.4 Citrulline......Page 108
  4.4.8 β-Aminobutyrate......Page 109
 4.6 Signal Transduction and Regulationin Stress Responses......Page 110
  4.7.1 Amino acids......Page 111
 4.8 Implications and Future Directions......Page 113
 4.9 Conclusions......Page 116
  References......Page 117
 Part II......Page 124
 5.1 Abstract......Page 126
 5.2 Introduction......Page 127
 5.3 Ambient Ozone......Page 128
 5.4 Ozone Effects on Human Health......Page 130
  5.4.1 Respiratory effects......Page 132
  5.4.3 Endocrine effects......Page 133
  5.4.5 Vulnerable populations......Page 134
  5.5.1 Mice......Page 135
  5.5.2 Ferrets......Page 136
  References......Page 137
  6.2.1 Lung surfactant composition......Page 144
  6.2.2 Ozone in ambient air......Page 145
 6.3 Reaction Pathways......Page 147
  6.4.2 In vivo product studies......Page 149
  6.4.3 Biophysical studies on model lipid membranes......Page 150
  6.4.4 Biophysical studies on surfactant proteins and peptide mimics......Page 151
  6.4.5 Molecular dynamics simulations......Page 153
  References......Page 154
  7.3.1 Nitrogen dioxide in outdoor air......Page 156
  7.4.1 Uptake, metabolism and oxidative damage......Page 157
  7.4.2 Inflammatory response and host defences......Page 158
  7.5.2 Silo filler disease......Page 159
  7.6.2 NO 2 and airway responsiveness and allergy......Page 161
  References......Page 162
 8.2 Introduction......Page 165
 8.4 Acute Pulmonary Effects and Exacerbation of Pre-existing Respiratory Diseases......Page 166
 8.5 Cardiovascular Effects......Page 169
 8.7 Carcinogenicity and Teratogenicity......Page 170
 8.8 Decontamination and Antidotes for Acute Accidental Exposures......Page 171
  References......Page 172
 9.2 Introduction......Page 178
  9.3.1 Morphological characteristics and growth......Page 179
  9.3.2 Photosynthesis......Page 180
  9.3.3 Nutrient uptake......Page 181
  9.3.5 Reactive oxygen species and its scavenging......Page 182
 9.4 Combined Effects of Acid Rain and Other Abiotic Stress on Plants......Page 183
 9.5 Conclusions and Future ­Perspectives......Page 184
  References......Page 185
 Part III......Page 190
 10.2 Introduction......Page 192
 10.3 Sources of PAH Contamination......Page 193
 10.4 Human Exposure to PAHs......Page 195
  10.4.1 New methods of PAH measurement......Page 196
 10.5 Bioassays......Page 197
 10.7 Species Sensitivity Distribution and Biomarker Bridge......Page 198
 10.9 Ecological Risk Assessment of PAHs......Page 199
 10.10 PAH Interactions with Other Stressors (Microplastics)......Page 200
  References......Page 201
 11.2 Introduction......Page 207
 11.3 Human Evidence of PCB Developmental Neurotoxicity......Page 210
  11.4.1 Evidence for and against thyroid hormone signalling in PCB DNT......Page 211
  11.4.2 Altered neurotransmitter levels as a mechanism of PCB DNT......Page 212
  11.4.3 Altered calcium signalling as a mechanism of PCB DNT......Page 213
  11.4.5 Interactions between the proposed mechanisms......Page 215
  11.4.6 Data gaps and approaches for addressing them......Page 216
 11.5 Conclusions......Page 217
  References......Page 218
 12.2 Introduction......Page 224
 12.3 Emission Patterns......Page 225
  12.4.1 Industrial sources......Page 228
  12.4.3 Congener profiles of different sources......Page 229
 12.5 Factors Affecting Ambient Distributions......Page 230
 12.6 Remediation and Other Methodologies......Page 231
 12.7 Legal Directives in Europe......Page 233
 12.8 Conclusions......Page 234
  References......Page 235
 13.2 Introduction......Page 238
 13.3 Chemistry......Page 239
 13.4 Mechanism of Action: the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor......Page 240
 13.5 Toxicity Equivalents......Page 242
 13.7 Sources of Dioxins......Page 243
 13.8 Environmental Fate......Page 244
  13.10.1 Accidents, contamination episodes and occupational risks......Page 245
  13.10.2 Risks connected with exposures of general population......Page 246
 13.11 Animal Toxicity and its Relevance in Assessing Human Risks......Page 247
  13.11.2 Developmental effects......Page 248
  13.11.3 Cancer in animals......Page 249
  References......Page 250
 14.2 Introduction......Page 257
 14.4 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey......Page 258
 14.5 Pre-Diabetes......Page 261
 14.6 Diabetes......Page 262
 14.8 Conclusions......Page 263
  References......Page 264
 15.2 Introduction: What are Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals?......Page 265
 15.4 Entry of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals into Human Tissues......Page 267
 15.5 Mechanisms by Which Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals Interfere in Hormone Action......Page 268
  15.5.2 Dose–response considerations......Page 269
  15.5.4 Variations between tissues and between individuals......Page 270
 15.6 Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals and Human Health......Page 271
  15.6.1 Female reproductive health......Page 272
  15.6.2 Male reproductive health......Page 274
  15.6.5 Energy metabolism......Page 276
 15.7 Conclusions and Regulatory Needs......Page 277
  References......Page 278
 16.2 Introduction......Page 284
 16.3 Chlorinated Ethane: 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2- bis (4-chlorophenyl) ethane (DDT)......Page 285
 16.4 Cyclodienes and Hexachlorocyclohexanes......Page 289
  16.4.1 Dieldrin neurotoxicity......Page 290
  16.4.2 Heptachlor neurotoxicity......Page 291
  16.4.3 Endosulfan neurotoxicity......Page 292
  References......Page 293
  17.2.2 Application and field of use......Page 297
  17.2.3 Chemistry and nomenclature......Page 298
 17.3 Toxicokinetics of Organophosphorus Compounds......Page 299
 17.5 Clinical Signs and (Laboratory) Diagnosis of OP Pesticide and Nerve Agent Poisoning......Page 300
 17.6 Treatment of OP Pesticide Poisoning......Page 303
  17.7.2 Stability of organophosphates in soil and mammalian and avian toxicity......Page 305
  References......Page 306
 18.2 Introduction......Page 312
  18.3.1 Cognitive functioning......Page 313
  18.3.2 Psychiatric symptoms......Page 323
 18.4 Narrative versus Systematic Reviews of the Literature......Page 325
  18.5.2 Vulnerable sub-groups......Page 327
  18.5.4 Outcome measures......Page 328
 18.6 Conclusions......Page 329
  References......Page 330
 19.2 Introduction......Page 333
 19.3 Amino Acid Analogue Incorporation into Proteins......Page 336
 19.4 Highly Conserved Glycine Residues and Disease......Page 337
 19.5 GxxxG Motif, Alzheimer’s Disease and Amyloidoses......Page 339
 19.6 Glyphosate and Aluminium......Page 341
  References......Page 342
 Part IV......Page 348
 20.2 Introduction......Page 350
  20.3.1 Hazard identification......Page 351
  20.3.3 Exposure assessment......Page 352
 20.4 Risk in Epidemiology......Page 353
 20.6 Chemical Hazards......Page 354
 20.8 Oil Spill Response Worker Exposure......Page 355
 20.9 Coastal Community Member Exposure......Page 356
 20.12 Conclusions......Page 358
  References......Page 359
 21.2 Introduction......Page 362
 21.3 Methods......Page 363
 21.4 Results......Page 364
 21.5 Discussion......Page 366
  References......Page 368
 22.2 Introduction......Page 371
 22.5 Settlement......Page 372
 22.6 Lingering Oil......Page 373
   22.7.1.1 Harbour seals......Page 374
   22.7.1.4 Sea otters......Page 375
   22.7.2.3 Black oystercatchers......Page 376
   22.7.2.7 Harlequin ducks......Page 377
   22.7.2.10 Pigeon guillemots......Page 378
   22.7.4.1 Cutthroat trout......Page 379
   22.7.4.6 Sockeye salmon......Page 380
   22.7.5.2 Sediments......Page 381
   22.7.6.3 Recreation and tourism......Page 382
  References......Page 383
 23.2 Background and Introduction......Page 385
 23.3 Definitions......Page 388
 23.4 Wastewater Composition......Page 389
 23.5 Toxicological Studies of Wastewater......Page 392
 23.7 Impacts on Environmental and Human Health......Page 394
 23.8 Conclusions......Page 395
  References......Page 396
 Part V......Page 402
 24.3 Methylmercury: from the Environment to the Human Body......Page 404
  24.4.1 Official confirmation of Minamata disease......Page 405
  24.4.3 Discovery of methylmercury intoxication......Page 406
  24.5.1 Early studies......Page 407
  24.5.3 Insufficient measures......Page 408
 24.7 Exposure Among Inhabitants Around the Yatsushiro Sea......Page 409
 24.8 Second Outbreak in Niigata......Page 412
 24.9 Environmental Policy Change and Compensation......Page 414
 24.10 Environmental Restoration of Minamata Bay......Page 415
  24.11.1 Neurological effects......Page 416
  References......Page 418
 25.2 Introduction: a Lingering Public Health Priority......Page 422
 25.3 Lead in the Environment......Page 424
 25.4 Lead Uptake into the Body......Page 425
  25.5.2 Ionic mechanisms......Page 427
  25.6.1 Nervous system effects......Page 428
  25.5.6 Reproductive and developmental health effects......Page 429
 25.7 Conclusions......Page 430
  References......Page 431
 26.2 Introduction......Page 435
 26.3 Exposure, Toxicokinetics and Biomarkers of Exposure......Page 436
  26.4.1 Kidney damage......Page 437
  26.4.2 Bone defects......Page 438
  26.4.3 Reproduction and early life abnormalities......Page 439
  26.4.4 Cancer......Page 440
 26.5 Conclusions......Page 441
  References......Page 442
 27.2 Introduction......Page 445
 27.3 Cadmium and Left Ventricular Function......Page 447
 27.4 Cadmium and Heart Failure......Page 448
 27.5 Cadmium and Cardiovascular Disease and Associated Risk Factors......Page 449
  References......Page 450
 Part VI......Page 454
 28.2 Introduction......Page 456
 28.3 Importance of Particle Size and Shape to Toxicity......Page 457
  28.5.1 Pyrolysis, oxidation and ring cyclization......Page 459
  28.5.3 Presence of hetero-elements......Page 460
  28.5.4 Partitioning of HCN and HCl between vapour and particulate phase of smoke......Page 462
  28.6.1 Immediate effects during Łexposure to high-concentration smoke plumes......Page 463
  28.6.2 Acute and sub-acute effects 1–72 hours after high-concentration smoke exposure......Page 464
  28.6.4 Acute inflammation caused by ultrafine particles......Page 465
  28.7.1 Chronic toxicity from acute or chronic exposure to mineral particles......Page 468
  28.7.2 Chronic toxicity from protracted exposure to low particulate Łconcentrations......Page 469
  28.7.3 Chronic toxicity resulting from acute exposure to carcinogens and dioxins......Page 470
 28.7 Conclusions......Page 472
  References......Page 473
 29.2 Introduction......Page 475
  29.4.1 Screening assays......Page 476
  29.4.2 Freshwater impact......Page 479
  29.4.3 Terrestrial impact......Page 480
 29.5 Conclusions......Page 481
  References......Page 482
 30.2 Background......Page 487
 30.3 Exposure to Microplastics......Page 489
  30.5.1 Effects after exposure and intake......Page 490
  30.5.4 Toxicity of microplastics under environmentally relevant conditions......Page 497
 30.6 Conclusions......Page 498
  References......Page 499
 Part VII......Page 506
  31.2.1 Skin definition, function and structure......Page 508
   31.2.1.1 Epidermis......Page 509
   31.2.3.1 Overview......Page 510
 31.3 Effects of Polyphenols on UV-induced Skin Damage......Page 511
  31.3.1 Polyphenols and DNA damage......Page 513
  31.3.2 Anti-inflammatory effects......Page 514
  31.3.3 Oxidative stress and polyphenols......Page 515
  31.3.4 Polyphenols and immunosuppression......Page 516
  31.3.5 Photoageing......Page 517
  31.3.6 Melanin induction by polyphenols......Page 519
  References......Page 520
 32.2 Introduction......Page 526
 32.3 Carcinogenic Effects of Radon Exposure......Page 527
  32.6.1 Cohort studies of miners......Page 528
  32.7.2 Ecological studies......Page 529
 32.8 Synergistic Risks Involving Cigarette Smoking......Page 530
  32.9.2 Genetic susceptibility to lung cancer and radon exposure......Page 531
  32.10.1 Prevention of environmental exposure......Page 532
  References......Page 533
 33.2 Introduction......Page 535
 33.3 Latency Period of Radiation-Induced Cancer......Page 536
 33.5 Human Evidence on Radon Exposure and Childhood Cancer......Page 537
 33.7 Conclusions......Page 545
  References......Page 546
 34.2 Introduction......Page 548
 34.3 Butterfly Model: Relevance to Humans......Page 550
 34.4 Unconventional Indirect Effects......Page 551
 34.5 A Case Study of Patient C.U.......Page 553
 34.6 Conclusions......Page 560
  References......Page 561
 Part VIII......Page 566
 35.2 Introduction......Page 568
 35.4 Microbial Degradation or Bioremediation......Page 569
  35.4.1 Natural attenuation......Page 570
  35.4.3 Bioaugmentation......Page 571
  35.4.6 Necrophytoremediation......Page 572
 35.5 Factors Affecting Bioremediation......Page 573
  35.6.1 Culture-dependent techniques......Page 574
  35.6.2 Soil respiration and respirometry measurements......Page 575
 35.7 Conclusions......Page 576
  References......Page 577
 36.2 Introduction......Page 582
  36.3.2 Fe 0 for safe drinking water in emergency......Page 583
  36.3.3 Fe 0 for phosphate removal from agricultural runoffs......Page 584
  36.3.5 Fe 0 for removing metallic ions from mining wastes......Page 585
  36.4.1 Fundamental aspects......Page 586
  36.4.3 Evaluating 30 years of research on the Fe 0 /H 2 O system......Page 587
 36.6 Concluding Statements......Page 589
  References......Page 590
  37.3.1 Feedstock......Page 596
   37.3.2.2 Gasification......Page 597
 37.5 Remediation of Contaminated Soil by Biochar......Page 598
   37.5.1.2 Biodegradation......Page 599
  37.5.2 Inorganic-contaminated soil......Page 601
  References......Page 604
 Part IX......Page 610
 38.2 Introduction......Page 612
  38.3.1 Urgency of environmental legislation......Page 613
  38.3.3 Environmental legal and institutional arrangements......Page 614
 38.4 Environmental Law Implementation......Page 617
  38.5.1 National regulations and interventions on chemicals......Page 619
  38.5.2 Changing roles of local governmental agencies......Page 621
 38.6 Environmental Regulation Implementation: Successes and Failures......Page 624
 38.7 Conclusions......Page 625
  References......Page 626
 39.2 Introduction: the Conceptual Framework of 21 st Century Toxicology......Page 628
 39.4 Transgenic Zebrafish Systems......Page 629
  39.5.1 Oestrogen receptor activity......Page 630
  39.5.2 Androgen receptor activity......Page 631
  39.5.4 Oxidative stress......Page 632
 39.7 Environmental Samples......Page 633
 39.8 Effect-Directed Analysis......Page 634
  References......Page 635
 40.1 Abstract......Page 638
  40.3.1 Biogenic compounds......Page 641
  40.3.2 Ambient air pollutants......Page 642
  40.3.4 Pesticides......Page 646
  40.3.6 Radiation carcinogenesis......Page 647
 40.4 Pollutants Damaging Biodiversity in the Ecosystem: a Risk Assessment......Page 648
 40.5 Discussion......Page 649
  40.5.2 Human health disorders categorized according to association with specific pollutants......Page 650
  40.5.3 Ecological considerations......Page 651
  40.6.1 General aspects......Page 652
  40.6.2 Food and water safety......Page 653
  40.6.3 Self-regulation and corporate behaviour......Page 654
  40.6.6 Leadership vacancies and opportunities......Page 655
 40.7 Conclusions......Page 656
  References......Page 657
Index......Page 662
Back Cover......Page 675