A Guide to Polymeric Geomembranes: A Practical Approach (Wiley Series in Polymer Science)

A Guide to Polymeric Geomembranes......Page 5
Contents......Page 7
Series Preface......Page 19
Preface......Page 21
About the Author......Page 23
Acknowledgments......Page 25
1.1 Introduction......Page 27
1.2 Viscoelastic Behaviour......Page 28
1.3 Polymer Structure......Page 30
1.4 Molecular Weight......Page 31
1.5 Molecular Weight Distribution......Page 33
1.6 Crystallinity......Page 34
1.7 Properties of Polyethylenes......Page 40
1.8 Stress–Strain Behaviour of Polymers......Page 42
1.8.1 Yield Behaviour......Page 43
1.8.3 Stress......Page 44
1.8.7 Strain Rate Effects......Page 45
References......Page 46
2 Geomembrane Manufacturing Methods......Page 47
2.1 Blown Film (Round Die)......Page 48
2.2 Flat Sheet Extrusion (Flat Die)......Page 49
2.3 Coextrusion......Page 51
2.4 Calendering......Page 54
2.5 Spread Coating......Page 55
2.8 Texturing......Page 56
2.8.2 Impingement Texturing (also known as Spray-on Texturing)......Page 58
2.8.3 Structuring......Page 61
2.8.4 Defects Created by Texturing......Page 64
2.8.6 Anchor Sheet......Page 65
2.9.2 Carbon Black......Page 66
2.9.3 Stabilizer Package......Page 68
2.9.4 Blooming of Additives......Page 75
2.9.5 Interaction of Additives......Page 76
References......Page 77
3.1 Introduction......Page 79
3.2 Structure–Property Relationships......Page 85
3.4 Durability and Survivability of HDPE......Page 86
3.5 Selection of Quality HDPE Geomembranes......Page 89
3.5.1 HDPE Resin Selection......Page 90
3.5.2 Additive Formulation Selection......Page 96
3.5.3 The Geomembrane Manufacturing Method......Page 97
3.5.4 Standard Criteria for HDPE Geomembrane Liners......Page 98
3.5.5 Acceptable HP-OIT Results......Page 99
3.5.7 Factory Sampling and Testing......Page 100
3.6 Common Failure Modes of HDPE Geomembranes......Page 101
3.7.1 White-Surfaced HDPE Geomembranes......Page 103
3.7.2 Conductive HDPE Geomembranes......Page 106
3.8 Fluorinated HDPE (F-HDPE)......Page 108
3.8.1 Degree of Fluorination......Page 110
3.8.2 Fluorination Process Details......Page 111
3.8.3 Superficial Layer......Page 112
3.8.5 Adhesive Bonding......Page 113
References......Page 114
4.1 Introduction......Page 117
4.4 Mechanical Properties......Page 118
4.5 LLDPE Geomembrane Resins......Page 120
4.6.2 Tri-Directional Reinforced Polyethylene (RPE)......Page 121
4.6.3 Reinforced Polyethylene (RPE)......Page 122
4.6.4 Reinforced Metallocene Polyethylenes......Page 125
References......Page 126
5.1 Introduction......Page 127
5.3 Shortcomings of fPP Geomembranes......Page 128
5.4 Performance Propeties of fPP Geomembranes......Page 130
5.4.1 Stress Crack Resistance......Page 133
5.4.2 UV Stability......Page 134
5.4.3 Chemical Resistance of fPP Geomembranes......Page 136
5.6 fPP Field Failures......Page 138
5.6.1 Field Failure Case Study......Page 139
References......Page 141
6.2 Grades of Hypalon......Page 143
6.3 Attributes of CSPE Geomembranes......Page 144
6.4 Limitations of CSPE Geomembranes......Page 145
6.5 General Properties of CSPE Geomembranes......Page 146
6.5.1 CSPE Formulation......Page 147
6.5.2 CSPE-R......Page 148
6.8 Chemical Resistance of CSPE Geomembranes......Page 151
References......Page 152
7.1 Introduction......Page 153
7.2 Attributes of PVC Geomembranes......Page 156
7.3 Shortcomings of PVC......Page 158
7.4.1 Advantages of PVC Geomembranes over HDPE......Page 159
7.5 Failure Modes......Page 160
7.6.1 Stabilization of PVC Geomembranes......Page 162
7.6.2 Non-Extractable Plasticizers for PVC......Page 163
References......Page 164
8.1 Introduction......Page 165
8.2 Attributes of EIA-R Geomembranes......Page 167
8.4 Performance Properties of EIA-R Geomembranes......Page 168
8.4.1 UV Resistance......Page 171
8.6 Application Areas for EIA-R Geomembranes......Page 173
References......Page 174
9.2 Attributes of EPDM Geomembranes......Page 175
9.3 Structure and Chemistry......Page 177
9.4 Mechanical Properties......Page 178
9.5 Advantages of EPDM over HDPE Geomembranes (Property Comparison)......Page 179
9.5.1 Stress Cracking......Page 180
9.5.6 Yield Point......Page 181
9.5.10 Welding Performance and Speed......Page 182
9.5.11 Substrates......Page 183
9.6.1 Durability and UV Resistance......Page 184
9.6.3 Interface Friction Angle......Page 185
9.7 Seaming EPDM Geomembranes......Page 186
9.9 Service Life......Page 187
References......Page 188
10.2 Prefabricated Bitumen Membranes......Page 189
10.3 Composition and Construction......Page 190
10.4 Longevity of Bituminous Geomembranes......Page 191
10.5 Spray-in-Place Bitumen Membranes......Page 192
References......Page 193
11.1 EVA Liners/Geomembranes......Page 195
11.2 Butyl Rubber Liners......Page 196
11.3 Nitrile Rubber Geomembranes......Page 198
11.3.1 Typical Nitrile Rubber Formulation......Page 199
11.4 Chlorinated Polyethylene (CPE)......Page 201
11.5 Polyurethane (PU) Geomembranes......Page 202
11.6 Acrylic-Coated Geomembranes/Geotextile Composites......Page 204
11.7 PVDF Liners......Page 206
11.7.1 PVDF Anchor Sheet (Studded Liner)......Page 207
11.8 Chemical Vapour Barrier Membranes......Page 208
11.8.2 Polyethylene Aluminium Composites......Page 209
References......Page 213
12.1 Specific Gravity (Density)......Page 215
12.2 Mass per Unit Area......Page 217
12.3 Thickness......Page 218
12.4 Melting Point......Page 222
12.5 Melt Flow Index......Page 224
12.6 Thermal Expansion......Page 225
12.6.1 Calculating the Extent of Thermal Expansion......Page 227
12.7 Flexibility......Page 229
12.9 Ability to Resist/Accept Stress and Deformation......Page 230
12.10.1 Uniaxial Strain......Page 232
12.10.2 Multiaxial Strain......Page 233
12.10.4 Elongation at Break......Page 235
12.10.6 Comparative Tensile Behaviour of Geomembranes......Page 236
12.10.8 Tensile Behaviour of Welds......Page 238
12.11 Puncture Resistance......Page 239
12.11.2 Large-Scale Puncture Testing......Page 241
12.12 Tear Resistance......Page 243
12.13 Ply Adhesion of Reinforced Geomembranes......Page 245
12.14 Resistance to Stress Cracking......Page 246
12.14.2 Allowable Strains in HDPE......Page 250
12.14.3 Estimating Local Strain......Page 251
12.15 Frictional Properties......Page 252
12.15.1 Comparison between Friction Angles of PVC and HDPE......Page 255
12.16 Low-Temperature Properties......Page 258
12.18 Oxidative Resistance......Page 262
12.19 UV Resistance......Page 266
12.20 Permeability of Geomembranes......Page 267
12.20.2 Water Vapour Diffusion (Water Vapour Transmission)......Page 269
12.20.3 Gas Permeability......Page 270
12.21 Durability......Page 271
12.21.1 Carbon Black Dispersion......Page 274
12.22.1 Properties Required for Backfilled Geomembranes......Page 275
References......Page 277
13.1 Material Property Testing......Page 281
13.2.1 Measuring Thickness of Textured Geomembranes......Page 282
13.3 Density......Page 284
13.5 Tensile Testing Methods......Page 285
13.5.1 Standard Tensile Test......Page 286
13.5.3 Gripping Test Specimens......Page 290
13.5.5 Multiaxial Tensile Testing......Page 291
13.6.2 Tongue Tear......Page 292
13.7 Ply Adhesion......Page 294
13.8 Puncture Resistance......Page 295
13.8.2 Hydrostatic Puncture (Large Scale Puncture) Test......Page 298
13.9 Impact Resistance......Page 301
13.10 Environmental Stress Cracking......Page 302
13.10.1 Bent Strip Method (ASTM D-1693)......Page 305
13.10.2 Notched Constant-Load Stress Cracking Resistance Test (NCTL) (ASTM D-5397)......Page 306
13.11 Dimensional Stability......Page 309
13.13 Melt Flow Index (MFI)......Page 310
13.14.1 Oxidative Degradation (Oxidation)......Page 312
13.14.2 Ultraviolet Degradation......Page 315
13.15.1 Carbon Black Content......Page 320
13.15.2 Carbon Black Dispersion......Page 321
13.15.3 Antioxidant/Stabilizer Levels by OIT Methods......Page 323
13.16 Carbonyl Index Measurements......Page 329
13.16.1 Steps for Determining the Carbonyl Index......Page 330
13.17 Chemical Resistance Testing......Page 331
13.17.1 Choosing the Accelerated Testing Incubation Temperature......Page 332
13.17.3 Permeability Testing......Page 334
References......Page 335
14 Chemical Resistance of Geomembranes......Page 339
14.1 Chemical Resistance Tables......Page 340
14.2 Factors Affecting Chemical Resistance......Page 341
14.2.2 Permeability......Page 342
14.2.4 Molecular Structure......Page 343
14.2.5 Solvent Transmission......Page 344
14.2.6 Desorption of Solvents......Page 347
14.4 Chemical Resistance Testing......Page 348
14.4.2 Service Specific Testing......Page 351
14.4.3 Chemical Resistance Criteria......Page 352
14.4.4 Permeability Testing......Page 353
14.5.2 Alkalis......Page 355
14.5.3 Chlorine......Page 359
14.5.6 Salt Solutions (Inorganic or Ionic Salts)......Page 360
14.6.1 Polyolefins......Page 361
14.6.3 Reinforced Ethylene Interalloy (EIA-R)......Page 364
14.7 Environmental Stress Cracking......Page 365
References......Page 367
15.1 Potential for Geomembrane Damage......Page 369
15.2 Failure of Installed Geomembranes......Page 370
15.2.2 Installation Damage......Page 371
15.2.3 Weld Failures......Page 372
15.2.4 Stress Related Failures......Page 375
15.2.5 Failure Modes of Scrim-Reinforced Geomembranes......Page 380
15.2.6 Failure Modes of Exposed Geomembranes......Page 382
15.2.7 Enviromental Degradation of Exposed Geomembranes and Liners......Page 385
15.2.8 Failure Modes by Geomembrane Type......Page 392
References......Page 394
16.1 Landfill Liners......Page 397
16.1.1 Design Aspects......Page 399
16.2 Landfill Caps/Covers......Page 400
16.2.1 Design Considerations for Landfill Covers......Page 401
16.2.2 Exposed Geomembrane Caps (EGCs)......Page 402
16.2.3 Differential Settlement......Page 403
16.3.1 Heap Leach Pads......Page 404
16.3.3 Liners for Salt Evaporation Ponds......Page 411
16.4 Floating Covers......Page 412
16.4.2 Industrial Floating Covers......Page 414
16.4.3 Floating Covers for Gas Collection......Page 418
16.5 Tank Liners......Page 420
16.5.1 Summary of Essential Considerations for Tanks Liner Selection......Page 421
16.5.2 Selection Criteria......Page 422
16.5.3 Inspection of Lining Installations......Page 424
References......Page 425
17.1 Wedge Welding......Page 427
17.1.1 The Wedge Welding Process......Page 428
17.1.2 Wedge Welding Conditions......Page 432
17.1.3 Minimum Requirements for a Wedge Welder......Page 433
17.1.4 Wedge Welding Tips for Seaming Geomembranes......Page 434
17.2 Hot Air Fusion Welding......Page 439
17.2.1 Hot Air Fusion Welding Conditions......Page 440
17.3 Extrusion Welding......Page 441
17.3.2 Extrusion Welding Conditions......Page 443
17.3.3 Extrusion Welding Tips......Page 446
17.3.4 Seam Grinding......Page 448
17.3.5 Extrusion Fillet Welding Checklist......Page 449
17.4.2 Testing the Welding Equipment......Page 450
17.5.2 Welding During Hot Weather......Page 451
17.5.3 Effect of Moisture on Welding......Page 452
17.5.8 Presence of Waxy Layers......Page 453
17.5.10 Contraindications for Welding......Page 454
17.6.1 Overheating of Thermal Welds......Page 455
17.6.4 Thickness Reduction on and near Welds......Page 458
17.6.7 Notch Effects in Extrusion Welds......Page 460
17.6.8 Welding of Dissimilar Geomembranes......Page 461
17.7.2 Trial Welds......Page 463
17.7.3 Field Weld Strength......Page 464
17.8 Chemical Welding of Geomembranes......Page 466
17.9.1 Surface Inspection......Page 468
17.9.2 Surface Cleaning......Page 469
17.9.3 On-Site Conditions......Page 470
17.10.3 PVC Seaming by Solvents (Chemical Welding)......Page 471
17.10.6 Factory Seams......Page 472
References......Page 473
18.1 Introduction to Weld Testing......Page 475
18.2.1 Signs of ‘Squeeze-Out’......Page 476
18.2.2 Puckering......Page 478
18.3.1 Manual Point Stressing......Page 479
18.3.2 Pressurized Air Channel Testing......Page 480
18.3.4 Vacuum Box Testing......Page 484
18.3.5 Spark Testing......Page 486
18.3.6 Ultrasonic Weld Testing......Page 490
18.4 Destructive Weld Tests......Page 491
18.4.1 Independent Laboratory Destructive Mechanical Testing......Page 494
18.4.2 Weld Strength Criteria......Page 501
18.5.1 Fracture Surface Morphology......Page 510
18.6 Leak Location Testing......Page 511
References......Page 515
19.1 Introduction......Page 517
19.2 Design Considerations......Page 519
19.3.1 Stresses on Geomembranes......Page 522
19.3.2 Subgrade Preparation......Page 523
19.3.4 Folds in the Supplied Geomembrane......Page 525
19.3.7 Deployment Damage......Page 526
19.3.8 Slope Stability......Page 527
19.3.11 Attaching Geomembranes to Steel Substructures......Page 528
19.3.12 Protection Layers......Page 529
19.3.13 Thermal Expansion......Page 533
19.3.14 Wrinkles......Page 534
19.3.15 Slack in Geomembranes......Page 540
19.3.16 Flaws on the Geomembrane Edge......Page 541
19.3.17 Welding-Related Factors......Page 542
19.3.18 Anchoring of Geomembranes......Page 546
19.3.19 Tensioning Due to Downslope Drag......Page 548
19.3.20 Geomembrane Bridging......Page 549
19.3.21 Wind Damage......Page 550
19.3.23 Installation Damage by Machinery......Page 552
19.3.24 Fill Placement on Top of Geomembranes......Page 553
19.3.25 Animal Damage......Page 555
References......Page 557
Appendix 1 Glossary......Page 559
References......Page 572
American Society for Testing and Materials......Page 573
Geomembrane (GM) Related Test Methods and Standards from GRI......Page 575
Geomembrane Testing Methods Conversion Table ASTM and ISO......Page 577
Index......Page 579