A Guide to Noise in Microwave Circuits: Devices, Circuits and Measurement

Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Contents
Author Biographies
Preface
Chapter 1 Introduction
	Preliminary Remarks
	History
	References
Chapter 2 Basic Terms
	Average Values
	Amplitude Distribution
	Autocorrelation
	Cross‐Correlation
	Noise Spectra
	Autocorrelation Function and Spectral Power Density
	Band‐Limited Noise on the Spectrum Analyzer
	References
Chapter 3 Noise Sources
	Thermal Noise
	Nyquist Formula and Thermal Radiation
	Validity and Experimental Confirmation of the Nyquist Formula
	Thermal Noise Under Extreme Conditions
	Shot Noise
	Plasma Noise
	Current Noise of Resistors and Contacts
	Technical Resistors
	Resistors Consisting of Semiconductor Material
	Contact Noise
	Generation–Recombination Noise
	LF Noise from Transistors
	References
Chapter 4 Noise and Linear Networks
	Narrowband Noise
	Calculating with Phasors
	Noise Source with Complex Internal Resistance
	The Equivalent Noise Bandwidth
	Network Components at Different Temperatures
	Noise Generator and Attenuator
	References
Chapter 5 Nonlinear Networks
	Mixing
	Band‐Limited RF Noise at Input
	Amplitude Clipping
	The Detector as a Nonlinear Network
	The Noise Spectrum Behind a Quadratic Detector
	The Noise Spectrum Behind a Linear Detector
	The Sensitivity Limit
	Noise with Signal
	The Phase Sensitive Rectifier
	Trace Averaging
	References
Chapter 6 The Noise Factor
	Amplifier and Noise Power
	The Noise Factor F
	Cascaded Amplifiers
	The Noise Measure M
	Definitions of Gain
	Source and Load
	Broadband and Spot Noise Factor
	Noise Factor of a Passive Network
	Antenna Temperature
	The Reference Temperature T0 = 290 K
	Noise Factor and Detection Limit
	References
Chapter 7 Noise of Linear Two-Ports
	Representation of Two-Ports
	Noise Modeling Using the Chain Matrix
	References
Chapter 8 Calculation Methods for Noise Quantities
	Noise Voltages, Currents, and Spectra
	Calculating with Current, Voltage, and Noise Waves
	The Noise Correlation Matrix
	The Correlation Matrix of Passive Components
	The Noise of Simple Passive Networks
	Transformation of Noise Sources in Different Network Representations
	Correlation Matrix and IEEE Elements
	FET-Like Network with the Y-Correlation Matrix
	Noise Sources at Input with ABCD Correlation Matrix
	References
Chapter 9 Diodes and Bipolar Transistors
	Semiconductor Diode
	Bipolar Transistor
	Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit
	Hawkins BJT Noise Model
	Two Approaches for the Collector Noise Current Source
	BJT Noise Model with Correlation Matrices
	The Π‐Model
	The T‐Model with Correlation Matrices
	Transformation of the Y‐Sources to the Input
	Modeling of a Microwave Transistor with Correlation Matrices
	Simplest Π‐Model
	Contour Diagram
	Transistor in the Circuit
	Using the Contour Diagram
	References
Chapter 10 Operational Amplifier
	Operational Amplifier as Circuit Element
	Noise Sources of the Operational Amplifier
	Consideration of 1/f Noise
	Operational Amplifier as an Active Low‐Pass Filter
	References
Chapter 11 Field Effect Transistors
	JFET
	Mode of Operation of the FET
	The Channel Noise
	Noise Sources at the Gate
	The Correlation
	Transformation to the Input
	Simple Approximations
	Field Effect Transistors for the Microwave Range (MESFET, HFET)
	The Pucel Model
	The Pospieszalski model
	Discussion of the Results
	Criteria for Noise Data
	References
Chapter 12 Theory of Noise Measurement
	Measurements of Two‐Ports
	The Equivalent Noise Resistance
	Voltage and Current Source
	Voltage and Current Source with Correlation
	3 dB and Y‐Method
	References
Chapter 13 Basics of Measuring Technique
	Principles of the RF‐Receiver
	The Detection Limit
	Diode as RF Receiver (Video Detector)
	RF and Microwave Range Receiver
	Dicke Radiometer
	Correlation Radiometer in the Microwave Range
	Network Analyzer as a Noise Measurement Device
	References
Chapter 14 Equipment and Measurement Methods
	Noise Measurement Receiver
	Spectrum Analyzer
	The Y‐Method
	Measurements in the Microwave Range
	Selection Criteria of the Mixer
	Image Rejection
	Complete Noise Characterization
	Analysis of Multi‐impedance Measurements
	Cold Source Method
	The 7‐State Method
	On‐Wafer Measurement of Cold Source
	On‐Wafer with Noise Generator According to the Y‐method
	References
Chapter 15 Noise Generators
	Vacuum Diode
	Gas Discharge
	Semiconductor Diodes
	Excess Noise Ratio (ENR)
	Hot–Cold Sources
	References
Chapter 16 Impedance Tuners
	Impedance Transformation with Simple Methods
	Mechanical Components for the Microwave Range
	Electronic Components
	Precision Automatic Tuner
	Attenuation of the Tuner
	References
Chapter 17 Examples of Measurement Problems
	Transistor in a Test Fixture
	The Low Noise Block (LNB) of Satellite Television
	Verification of a Noise Measurement
	References
Chapter 18 Measurement and Modeling of Low‐Frequency Noise
	Correlation Radiometer for Low Frequencies (f < 10 MHz)
	The Low‐Frequency Noise of Transistors
	Measurement Setup for LF Noise
	Examples of LF Noise Measurements on GaAs‐HBT
	Modeling of LF Noise
	The Noise of the Microphone
	References
Chapter 19 Measurement Accuracy and Sources of Error
	Accuracy of Measured Data
	Error of Measurements
	Inaccuracies of the Noise Measurement
	Uncertainty of the ENR Calibration
	Noise Source Mismatch
	T0 = 290 K Is not TOFF
	Mismatch in the System
	Linearity of the Receiver
	References
Chapter 20 Phase Noise
	Basics
	Reciprocal Mixing
	Description of Phase Noise
	Spectral Power Density of Phase Fluctuations Sϕ(f)
	The Single Sideband Phase Noise L(f)
	Spectral Power Density of Frequency Fluctuations SΔf(f)
	Excursus on Frequency and Phase Modulation
	The Allan Variance σY2(τ)
	Residual FM
	Multiplication and Division
	Amplitude Noise
	Phase Noise and Jitter
	References
Chapter 21 Physics of the Oscillator
	Oscillation Condition
	Simple Model of the Phase Disturbance
	Phase Slope, Resonator Quality, and Frequency Stability [3]
	The Formula of Leeson
	Components of Oscillators
	Influence of the Varactor Diode
	Upward Mixing of LF Noise
	The Influence of Microwave Noise on Phase Noise
	References
Chapter 22 Phase Noise Measurement
	Basic Parameters
	Spectrum Analyzer
	Phase Detector Method
	The Sensitivity of the Phase Detector
	Example Calibration and Measurement
	Keeping the Quadrature by a PLL
	Delay Line as Frequency Discriminator
	The Sensitivity of the Delay‐Line Method
	Configuration and Calibration
	Resonator as Frequency Discriminator
	Detection Limit
	Comparison of Measurement Systems
	Cross‐Correlation Technique
	Amplitude Noise
	Problems with On‐Wafer Measurement
	Residual Phase Noise
	References
Appendix A Appendix
	Noise Signals and Deterministic Signals
	Random Signals
	Characteristic Values
	The Probability Density Function
		Example Sine Function
		Example Sawtooth Voltage
		Example White Noise
		Example Sinusoidal Signal with Noise
		Example Narrowband Noise
	The Autocorrelation Function
		Example Sine
		Example Sawtooth
		Example Noisy Sine
		Example White Noise
		Example Low‐Pass Noise
		Example Bandpass Noise
	Fourier Series
	Sine–Cosine Spectrum
	Amplitude–Phase Spectrum
	Complex Fourier Series
	The Fourier Integral
	Energy and Power Signals
	Example Transient Time Function
	The Parseval Equation
	Example Voltage Pulse
	Fourier Transform and Power Spectral Density
	Example Rectangular Pulse
	Time‐Limited Noise Signal
	Example of a Time‐Limited Wave Train
	The Wiener–Khinchin Theorem
	Cross Correlation
		Example of Two Sine Functions
		Example of Two White Noise Signals
		Example of Two Bandpass Noise Signals
		Example White Noise and Bandpass Noise
	Cross‐Correlation After Splitting into Two Branches
	Power Spectral Density Real and Complex
	The Cross‐Spectral Density
	Complex Representation of the Cross‐Spectral Density
	Transmission of Noise by Networks
	References
Glossary of Symbols
Index
EULA