A Grammar of Nuosu

Acknowledgement
Preface
List of Tables
Abbreviations
1 The people and their environment
	1.1 Nuosu history
	1.2 Nuosu society
	1.3 Nuosu culture and religion
2 Language background
	2.1 Genetic affiliation of Nuosu
	2.2 Nuosu and its dialects
	2.3 Literature survey on Nuosu
	2.4 Typological profile of Nuosu
		2.4.1 Phonology
		2.4.2 Morphology
		2.4.3 Syntax
		2.4.4 Pragmatics
3 Phonology
	3.1 Sounds and tones
		3.1.1 Consonants
			A. Stops
			B. Fricatives
			C. Affricates
			D. Nasals and laterals
		3.1.2 Vowels
		3.1.3 Tones
	3.2 Phonological processes
		3.2.1 Creaky voice
		3.2.2 Tone sandhi
		3.2.3 Syllable structure
	3.3 The logographic script
		3.3.1 Introduction
		3.3.2 Nuosu syllabary
4 Word structure
	4.1 Word categories
		4.1.1 Open categories
		4.1.2 Closed and semi-closed categories
	4.2 Affixation
		4.2.1 Inventory of prefixes
			A. Size prefixes
			B. Fruit prefix syp-
			C. gga- ‘road’
			D. co- ‘person’ (also as free morpheme)
			E. ddop- ‘word’
			F. hxie- ‘heart’
			G. ke- ‘mouth’
			H. mu- ‘place, sky, steam’
			I. o- ‘head’
		4.2.2 Inventory of suffixes
			A. Nominalizer suffixes
			B. Gender/age suffixes
			C. Adjectivizer suffixes
	4.3 Reduplication
		4.3.1 Nouns
		4.3.2 Classifiers
		4.3.3 Personal pronouns
		4.3.4 Verbs
		4.3.5 Adjectives
		4.3.6 Colour ideophones
		4.3.7 Idioms
			AABB
			ABAB
			ABCB
			ABAC
			ABCD
	4.4 Compounding
		4.4.1 Nominal compounds
			A and B are unrelated in meaning
			A and B are figuratively related
			A and B are parallel
			A is the material of which B is made
			B denotes a part of A
			A is the producer of B
			A is processed into B
			A describes the kind or nature of B
			B is a unit of A
			A denotes the body part on which B is worn
			B is a piece of equipment used in a means of transport, A
			B denotes the dwelling or storing place of A
			A denotes the body part of disease B
			B is a representative symbol for A
			A denotes the sign in Chinese zodiac for time unit B
		4.4.2 Verbal compounds
			A and B are unrelated
			A and B are antonymic
			A and B are parallel
			B denotes resultative state of A
		4.4.3 Mixed compounds
			A is noun and B is verb
			A is noun and B is classifier
			A is verb and B is classifier
5 The noun phrase
	5.1 Introduction
		5.1.1 Constructions of the noun phrase
		5.1.2 The order of components in the noun phrase
	5.2 Qualifying nouns
		5.2.1 Noun classifiers
			A. Animate sortal classifiers
			B. Inanimate sortal classifiers
			C. Diverse small-range sortal classifiers
			D. Mixed nominal and verbal classifiers
			E. Collectivizers
			F. Partitioners and subclassifiers
			G. Measure Words
			H. Auto-classifiers
		5.2.2 Possession
		5.2.3 Adjectival modification
		5.2.4 Nominalization
			A. The nominalizer su
			B. The nominalizers ddu and dde
			C. Appendix: The particle su
	5.3 Quantifying nouns
		5.3.1 Numerals
			A. Cardinal numbers
			B. Ordinal numbers
		5.3.2 Noun quantifiers
			A. The quantifier mu ‘whole/all’
			B. The quantifier zzix ap zzi ‘every’
			C. The quantifier kep nyix ‘several’
			D. The quantifier ax pa ‘other’
			E. The quantifiers ax nyi ‘much’ / ix nyi ‘few’
			F. The quantifier cyp gge ‘some’
			G. The quantifier ax di ‘only’
			H. The quantifiers ax nyi yix nyi ‘at most’ / ix nyi yix nyi ‘at least’
			I. Other quantifying expressions
			J. Appendix: The particle mu
		5.3.3 The additive noun conjunction si nip ‘and’
	5.4 Localizing nouns
		5.4.1 Personal pronouns
			A. The basic pronouns
			B. The logophors
			C. The dual pronouns
			D. The possessive pronouns
			E. The personal pronoun sut ‘someone else’
			F. The versatile pronoun go
			G. Appendix: The particle go
		5.4.2 Reflexive anaphors
			A. zyt jie ‘self’ as short-distance anaphor
			B. zyt jie ‘self’ as long-distance anaphor
			C. zyt jie ‘self’ as emphatic pronoun
			D. yip dde ‘original-self’ as emphatic pronoun
		5.4.3 Demonstratives
			A. The demonstratives cyx and a zzyx
			B. The demonstrative xip
			C. The demonstratives cyp xip, a zzyx xip and xip mu
			D. The demonstratives tit and a ddit
		5.4.4 Bare common nouns
		5.4.5 Indefinite and definite articles
		5.4.6 Interrogative / indefinite pronouns
			A. The pronoun kax ddi ‘who’
			B. The pronoun xix ‘what/which’
			C. The pronoun kep nyix ‘how much/many’
			D. The pronoun kat go ‘where’
			E. The pronoun kep te go ‘when’
			F. The pronoun kep mu ‘how’
			G. The pronoun xix jjip hnex ‘why’
6 The verb phrase
	6.1 Predicative constructions
		6.1.1 Nominal predicates
		6.1.2 Copular predicate
			A. Basic functions
			B. Derived functions
		6.1.3 Adjectival predicates
		6.1.4 Verbal predicates
			A. Intransitive verbs
			B. Monotransitive verbs
			C. Ambitransitive verbs
			D. Ditransitive verbs
			E. Simplex/complex verb pairs
	6.2 Coverbs
		6.2.1 Agent coverbs
			A. The coverb gep ‘add’
			B. The coverb sip ‘take’
			C. The complex coverb gep sip
			D. Appendix: The particles sip/six
		6.2.2 Patient coverbs
			A. The coverb ddie ‘prepare’
		6.2.3 Causee coverbs
			A. The coverb bbyp/bbyx ‘give’
			B. The coverb ddie ‘prepare’
			C. The coverb ga ‘drop’
			D. The coverb shu ‘make’
		6.2.4 Recipient coverbs
			A. The coverb bbyp/bbyx ‘give’
			B. The coverb jox
		6.2.5 Locative coverbs
			A. The coverb da ‘put’
			B. The coverb ddip/ddix ‘say’
			C. The coverb zyp/zyx ‘lean’
			D. The coverb mo ‘see’
		6.2.6 Directional coverbs
			A. The coverb xi ‘arrive’
			B. The coverb hxep/hxex ‘see’
			C. The coverb chop ‘along’
		6.2.7 Oblique coverbs
			A. The coverb six ‘take’
			B. The coverb sat ‘point to’
			C. The coverb mga ‘pass’
			D. The coverb mgep/mgex ‘mix’
			E. The coverb rrox mu
			F. The coverb qo ‘follow’
			G. The coverb wa mgot ‘pursue’
	6.3 Locative phrases
		6.3.1 The structure of locative phrases
		6.3.2 The position of locative phrases
	6.4 Directional phrases
		6.4.1 Directional particles and verbs
		6.4.2 Types of directional phrases
7 Tense and aspect
	7.1 Introduction
		7.1.1 The theory of situation types
			A. The four Vendlerian situation types
			B. Object, event and state structure
		7.1.2 The theory of tense
		7.1.3 Aspect and tense categories in Nuosu
	7.2 Phasal auxiliaries
		7.2.1 Specialized expressions
			A. go mox ‘beginning’
			B. jjup zot da ‘continue’
		7.2.2 Grammaticalized verbs
			A. hxep ‘look’
			B. la ‘come’
			C. go zix ‘insert’
			D. ddur ‘exit’
	7.3 Resultative auxiliaries
		7.3.1 Specialized expressions
		7.3.2 Grammaticalized verbs
			A. wex ‘get’
			B. sha ‘send’
			C. ssop ‘shine’
			D. ndox ‘put’
	7.4 Progressive aspect
		7.4.1 The progressive particle njuo
			A. Punctual events
			B. Homogenous events
			C. Quantized events
			D. Bounded events
			E. States
		7.4.2 The progressive particle ge
			A. Punctual events
			B. Homogenous events
			C. Quantized events
			D. Bounded events
			E. States
	7.5 Perfective aspect
		7.5.1 The exhaustion particle sat
			A. Objects
			B. Events
			C. States
			D. Synthesis
	7.6 Quantitative aspect
		7.6.1 The experiental particle nzox
			A. Unrepeatable situations
			B. Weak-repeatable situations
			C. Strong-repeatable situations
			D. Synthesis
		7.6.2 The periodical particle ndit
			A. Unrepeatable situations
			B. Weak-repeatable situations
			C. Strong-repeatable situations
			D. The verbal meaning of ndit
			E. Synthesis
		7.6.3 The habitual particle go shex
			A. Unrepeatable situations
			B. Weak-repeatable situations
			C. Strong-repeatable situations
			D. Synthesis
		7.6.4 Verb classifiers
			A. Terminology
			B. Sortal verb classifiers
			C. Mensural verb classifiers
			D. Double classifiers of nouns and verbs
			E. Synthesis
	7.7 Perfect
		7.7.1 The stative perfect particle da
			A. Basic analysis
			B. The conjunctions mu da and nyi mu da
		7.7.2 The dynamic perfect particle ox
			A. Basic analysis
			B. Co-occurrence of ox and da
		7.7.3 Appendix: The particle da
			A. The main verb da ‘put’
			B. The conjunction mu da
			C. The perfect particle da
			D. The perfect particle da with coverbs
			E. The location coverb da
			F. The source coverb da
			G. Historical development
	7.8 Tense
		7.8.1 The future tense particle mix
			A. Introduction
			B. First person effect
			C. Sufficient condition of future tense
			D. Relative future tense
			E. When the first person effect is suspended
		7.8.2 Appendix: The particle mix
			A. As solicitation particle
			B. As focus adverb
8 Modality and evidentiality
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Modality
		8.2.1 The morphosyntax of modal auxiliaries
			A. Modal auxiliary verbs versus matrix verbs
			B. Modal auxiliaries verbs versus adverbs
			C. List of modal auxiliaries
		8.2.2 The semantics of modal auxiliaries
			A. The modal ddie ddur ‘need’
			B. The modal tat xi ‘should’
			C. The modals ssox ‘should’ and ddip ssox ‘should’
			D. The modal qi ‘want’
			E. The modal hna ‘willing’
			F. The modal but ‘dare’
			G. The modal get ‘can, able’
			H. The modal hxit ‘can’
			I. The modal dop ‘can’
			J. The modal yix syp ‘able, know-how’
			K. The modal hxi nyi ‘intend’
			L. The modal mo mgu ‘intend’
			M. The modal mo ddix ‘committed’
			N. The modal jox dop ‘prepared’
	8.3 Evidentiality
		8.3.1 The quotative information source
			A. The quotative particle ddix
			B. The complementizer ddix
			C. Other expressions incorporating ddix
		8.3.2 Other information sources
9 Adverbs and negation
	9.1 Adverbs
		9.1.1 Adverbial constructions
			A. Predicate-level and sentence-level adverbials
			B. Constructions equivalent to depictives
			C. Oriented adverbials
			D. Free adjuncts
		9.1.2 Movable adverbs
			A. Temporal adverbs
			B. Other adverbs
		9.1.3 Immovable adverbs
			A. Manner adverbs
			B. Other adverbs
		9.1.4 Postverbal adverbs
	9.2 Negation
		9.2.1 Nouns
		9.2.2 Noun quantifiers
		9.2.3 Adjectives
		9.2.4 Verbs
		9.2.5 Adverbs
		9.2.6 TAM
		9.2.7 Declaratives and interrogatives
		9.2.8 Imperatives
10 Subject and object
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Simple clauses
		10.2.1 AOV order in imperfective clauses
			A. Progressive aspect markers
			B. A- or V-oriented manner adverbs
			C. V = V1V2 (V1 activity, V2 directional)
		10.2.2 OAV order in resultative clauses
			A. Resultative auxiliaries
			B. O-oriented manner adverbs
			C. V = V1-six-V2 (V1 activity, V2 directional)
		10.2.3 The indeterminate word order
			A. The grammatical tone on pronouns
			B. The grammatical tone on verbs
			C. The pronoun go
			D. The passive marker gep
		10.2.4 Left-dislocation
		10.2.5 The exhaustion particle
		10.2.6 Pro-Drop
	10.3 Complex clauses
		10.3.1 Coordinate clauses
			A. S-A sequence
			B. S-O sequence
			C. A-O sequence
		10.3.2 Relative clauses
			A. S-A sequence
			B. S-O sequence
		10.3.3 Causative clauses
			A. Causee = S
			B. Causee = A
			C. Causee ≠ O
	10.4 Synthesis
11 Valency changing constructions
	11.1 Passive
		11.1.1 The passive postposition
		11.1.2 The concept of adversity
		11.1.3 Omission of unimportant demoted subjects
		11.1.4 Exclusion of low-transitivity verbs
	11.2 Reciprocal
	11.3 Causative
		11.3.1 Causative coverbs
		11.3.2 The causative particle
	11.4 Comparison
		11.4.1 Comparative Constructions
			A. Superiority
			B. Inferiority
			C. Equality
		11.4.2 Intensification and superlative
			A. The intensifier -jjy-
			B. The superlative -lop-
12 Versatile constructions
	12.1 Presentative constructions
		12.1.1 The presented and locative noun phrases
		12.1.2 The existential predicate
			A. The existential verb jjo ‘have’
			B. The existential verb rrur ‘lie about’
			C. The existential verb jjip ‘located’
			D. The existential verb ndit ‘attached’
			E. The existential verb qo ‘contain’
			F. The existential verb rryp ‘stick to’
			G. The existential verb it ‘lie’
			H. The existential verb nyi ‘sit’
			I. The existential verb hxit ‘stand’
			J. The existential verb zzur ‘stick up’
			K. The existential verb ke ‘nest’
			L. The existential verb bbu ‘exist’
			M. Motional verbs are not presentational
	12.2 Resultative constructions
		12.2.1 Agent-resultative construction
		12.2.2 Patient-resultative construction
		12.2.3 Nonargument-resultative constructions
13 Complex sentences
	13.1 Coordinating constructions
		13.1.1 Zero linking
		13.1.2 Forward-linking conjunctions
			A. Movable conjunctions
			B. Immovable conjunctions
			C. Clause-final conjunctions
		13.1.3 Backward-linking conjunctions
			A. Clause-initial conjunctions
			B. Movable conjunctions
			C. Clause-second conjunctions
			D. Clause-final conjunctions
	13.2 Subordinating constructions
		13.2.1 Zero marking
		13.2.2 With complementizers su and go
		13.2.3 With complementizer su alone
		13.2.4 With complementizer ddix
14 Topic and focus
	14.1 Topic
		14.1.1 The topic particles ne and li
		14.1.2 The sentence topic particle su
		14.1.3 The sentence topic particle go
	14.2 Focus
		14.2.1 The focus particle li
		14.2.2 The sentence focus particle su
		14.2.3 The pseudo-cleft construction with kax
15 Speech act particles
	15.1 Interrogative
		15.1.1 The particle ddap
		15.1.2 The particle mix
	15.2 Imperative
		15.2.1 The particle mo
		15.2.2 The particle map
		15.2.3 The particle yip su
	15.3 Expressive
		15.3.1 The wish particle ddep lox
		15.3.2 The fear particle mat
		15.3.3 Regret particles
References
Appendix: Folk Stories
	Why do men have their livestock stay close to home?
	The dove and the cuckoo
	Zhege'alu tames the thunder
Name Index