A Conceptual Overview on Sustainable Technologies for the Defluoridation of Drinking Water

Contents......Page 9
Foreword......Page 4
Preface......Page 5
I. Data on Poisoning Incidents in the USA......Page 18
II. Initial Approaches to the Treatment of Poisoning......Page 20
III. The Growing Use of Activated Charcoal......Page 22
V. References......Page 24
I. Terminology......Page 26
II. Early History......Page 27
III. Evolution of Methods for Testing Medicinal Charcoals......Page 29
IV. References......Page 33
I. The Manufacture of Activated Charcoal......Page 35
B. Activation with Oxidizing Gases......Page 36
II. The Properties of Activated Charcoal......Page 37
B. Pore Volume and Pore-Size Distribution......Page 39
C. Surface Area......Page 41
D. Nature of the Charcoal Surface......Page 42
C. Surface Area of the Charcoal......Page 45
E. Nature of the Solute......Page 46
F. pH of the Solution......Page 48
G. Presence of Inorganic Salts......Page 52
H. Competing Solutes......Page 53
IV. Determining Adsorption Isotherms......Page 54
A. The Langmuir Isotherm Equation......Page 55
B. The Freundlich Isotherm Equation......Page 58
C. Least-squares Fitting of Data to Determine Isotherm Constants......Page 60
D. Theoretical Aspects of Isotherm Equations......Page 62
V. Summary......Page 63
VI. References......Page 64
I. Requirements of the U. S. Pharmacopeia......Page 67
II. "Superactive" Charcoal......Page 70
III. Currently Available Usp Charcoals in the USA......Page 72
IV. Currently Available Charcoal Products in the Usa......Page 73
V. Other Currently Available Charcoal Products......Page 78
VI. The "Container Residue" Issue......Page 81
VII. Comparative Studies of Antidotal Charcoals......Page 83
VIII. Summary......Page 87
IX. References......Page 88
I. The Effect of Drug Dosage Form......Page 90
III. The Role of pH in Drug Absorption......Page 92
IV. Mechanical Aspects of Gastrointestinal Physiology......Page 94
V. Absorption in the Gastrointestinal Tract......Page 96
VI. Drug Fate After Absorption......Page 99
VII. Gastrointestinal Dialysis and Interruption of the Enterohepatic Cycle......Page 102
VIII. Summary......Page 105
IX. References......Page 106
I. Introduction......Page 108
II. The Pharmacokinetics of Intravenously Administered Drugs......Page 113
A. The One Compartment Open Model......Page 115
B. The Two Compartment Open Model......Page 120
A. One Compartment Open Model......Page 122
IV. Examples of Pharmacokinetic Calculations......Page 123
D. Mean Residence Time......Page 124
VI. References......Page 125
II. General Overdose Management Strategies......Page 127
III. Oral Dilution......Page 130
IV. Induced Emesis with Syrup of IPECAC......Page 132
A. Toxicity of Ipecac......Page 135
C. Success of Ipecac in Producing Emesis......Page 137
D. Comparison of Ipecac and Apomorphine in Producing Emesis......Page 140
E. Effectiveness of Ipecac and Apomorphine in Recovering Stomach Contents......Page 141
F. General Comments on the Use of Ipecac......Page 143
V. Gastric Lavage......Page 144
VI. Comparison of IPECAC and Lavage......Page 147
VII. Use of Saline Cathartics or Sorbitol......Page 152
VIII. Whole-Bowel Irrigation......Page 155
IX. Altering Diuretic Processes......Page 157
XI. Hemodialysis and Hemoperfusion......Page 159
XII. Summary......Page 164
XIII. References......Page 166
I. Randomized Cross-Over and Other Types of Studies......Page 174
II. Assessment of the Statistical Significance of Differences in Treatments......Page 176
I. Charcoal Powder Versus Tableted Charcoal......Page 180
II. Optimal Dose of Activated Charcoal......Page 183
III. Stability of the Drug/Charcoal Complex......Page 185
IV. Storage Stability of Charcoal Suspensions......Page 191
V. Universal Antidote......Page 192
VI. Effect of Pepsin on in Vitro Adsorption......Page 196
VII. Summary......Page 197
VIII. References......Page 199
I. Andersen's In Vitro Adsorption Studies......Page 202
II. The Effect of pH......Page 204
III. Adsorption from Gastrointestinal Contents......Page 206
V. References......Page 212
11. Effects of Activated Charcoal on Major Classes of Drugs and Chemicals......Page 214
II. Alkaloids......Page 215
B. In Vivo Studies......Page 218
IV. Acetaminophen and Interactions with Acetylcysteine......Page 221
B. In Vivo Studies......Page 222
C. Interactions with N-acetylcysteine......Page 226
A. In Vitro Studies......Page 231
B. In Vivo Studies......Page 233
VI. Tricyclic Antidepressants......Page 237
A. Other in Vitro Studies......Page 238
B. In Vivo Studies......Page 239
VII. Cardiac Glycosides......Page 243
VIII. Organic Solvents......Page 247
IX. Ethanol......Page 252
X. Summary......Page 255
XI. References......Page 256
12. Effect of Charcoal on Other Classes of Drugs......Page 262
A. Chlorpheniramine......Page 264
A. Antibiotics......Page 267
B. Antituberculosis Agents......Page 268
C. Antimalarial Agents......Page 270
E. Sulfones: Dapsone......Page 273
A. Anti-Arrhythmics......Page 274
C. Calcium Channel-Blockers: Diltiazem......Page 279
A. Analgesics......Page 280
B. Anticonvulsants......Page 284
C. Anti-Inflammatory Agents......Page 287
D. Tranquilizers......Page 288
E. Other CNS Agents: Methamphetamine......Page 291
D. Nizatidine......Page 292
VI. Antidiabetic Sulfonylureas......Page 293
VII. Respiratory Relaxants: Theophylline......Page 294
C. Human Volunteer Studies......Page 295
D. Human Overdose Studies......Page 297
C. Isopropanol and Acetone......Page 298
E. Herbicides......Page 299
F. Insecticides......Page 300
G. Pesticides......Page 301
C. Furosemide......Page 302
E. Cocaine......Page 303
F. Phencyclidine......Page 304
XI. References......Page 305
I. Effect of a Delay in Administration......Page 312
A. Aspirin and Other Salicylates......Page 313
B. Acetaminophen......Page 316
C. Barbiturates......Page 318
D. Tricyclic Antidepressants......Page 320
E. Cardiac Glycosides......Page 321
G. Propoxyphene......Page 322
H. Other Drugs......Page 323
II. Effect of Food......Page 327
III. Effect of Gastric pH......Page 330
IV. Summary......Page 331
V. References......Page 332
I. Aspirin......Page 335
III. Phenobarbital......Page 338
A. Human Volunteer Studies with Subtoxic Doses......Page 340
B. Overdose Case Reports......Page 341
V. Tricyclic Antidepressants......Page 342
A. Human Volunteer Studies with Subtoxic Doses......Page 343
A. Animal Studies......Page 344
C. Human Volunteer Studies with Subtoxic IV Doses......Page 345
D. Human Overdose Case Reports......Page 349
VII. Quinine......Page 351
VIII. Antibiotics......Page 352
X. Dapsone......Page 354
XI. Carbamazepine......Page 355
A. Human Studies with Subtoxic IV Doses......Page 356
B. Human Overdose Reports......Page 357
B. Phenobarbital and Diazepam......Page 358
E. Nadolol and Sotalol......Page 359
I. Paroxetine......Page 360
XV. Limitations on Multiple-dose Charcoal Therapy......Page 361
XVI. Summary......Page 362
XVII. References......Page 367
I. Effect of Charcoal on IPECAC......Page 374
II. Comparative Effectiveness of IPECAC and Charcoal......Page 376
III. Comparative Effectiveness of Lavage and Charcoal......Page 382
IV. Comparative Effectiveness of Whole Bowel Irrigation and Charcoal......Page 384
V. Effects of Sorbitol on the Action of Charcoal......Page 388
A. Some Preliminary Comments......Page 389
B. Effects of Sorbitol on GI Transit Times......Page 390
C. Dosage Recommendations for Sorbitol......Page 391
D. Effect of Sorbitol on the Efficacy of Charcoal......Page 392
E. Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 399
A. In Vitro Studies......Page 400
B. In Vivo Studies......Page 404
V. Summary......Page 408
VIII. References......Page 409
16. The Development of Palatable Formulations......Page 414
I. Providing Lubricity......Page 415
II. Providing Flavor......Page 419
IV. Summary......Page 431
V. References......Page 432
I. General Toxicity of Charcoal......Page 435
II. Aspiration......Page 436
III. Perforations......Page 440
V. Empyema......Page 441
VII. Abdominal Distension from Sorbitol......Page 442
VIII. Hypernatremia and Hypermagnesemia......Page 443
IX. Constipating Effect of Charcoal......Page 448
X. Obstructions Caused by Charcoal......Page 449
XII. Corneal Abrasions......Page 451
XIV. Summary......Page 452
XV. References......Page 453
18. Effect of Charcoal on Various Inorganic Substances......Page 456
II. Boric Acid......Page 457
IV. Iron......Page 458
VI. Phosphorus......Page 459
VIII. Cyanide......Page 460
Xl. References......Page 461
I. Bile Salts......Page 463
II. Bilirubin......Page 464
III. Effect on Pruritus......Page 467
IV. Effect on Erythropoietic Porphyria......Page 468
V. Effect on Uremic Toxins......Page 471
VI. Hypolipidemic Effects of Charcoal......Page 473
VII. Effects in Liver Disease......Page 477
VIII. Prolongation of Animal Lifespan......Page 478
IX. Summary......Page 479
X. References......Page 480
I. Incidence of Animal Poisoning and General Guidelines for Charcoal Use......Page 484
II. Veterinary Activated Charcoal Products......Page 485
III. Common Sources of Animal Poisons and Toxins......Page 486
IV. Poisoning by Plants......Page 487
V. Poisoning Due to Herbicides, Pesticides, and Insecticides......Page 489
VI. Fungal Toxins from Grains......Page 495
VIII. Other Toxins......Page 498
IX. Poisoning of Household Pets......Page 499
XI. References......Page 500
I. Introduction......Page 503
II. Enterosorption Studies Described by Nikolaev......Page 504
III. Some Other Studies......Page 505
IV. References......Page 506
I. Basic Types and Properties of Resins Used as Antidotes......Page 508
II. Basic Types and Properties of Clays......Page 510
III. Studies Involving Clays......Page 511
A. General Studies of Ion Exchange Resins......Page 514
B. General Studies of Cholestyramine and Colestipol......Page 517
C. Effects of Cholestyramine and Colestipol in Cardiac Glycoside Overdoses......Page 520
D. Effects of Cholestyramine and Colestipol on Other Drugs......Page 524
E. Effects of Cholestyramine and Colestipol on Concomitant Drugs Taken Therapeutically......Page 526
F. Effects of Resins on Various Endogenous Biochemicals......Page 528
G. Use of Cholestyramine for Treating Hydrocarbon Toxicity......Page 531
H. Effect of Cholestyramine and Colestipol on Bacterial Toxins and Antibiotics......Page 532
I. Effect of Sodium Polystyrene Sulfonate on Inorganic Species......Page 533
V. Summary......Page 534
VI. References......Page 535
I. Effect of Charcoal on Surface Wounds......Page 542
II. Effect of Charcoal on Various Skin Problems......Page 544
III. Effect on GI Tract Bacterial Sepsis......Page 545
IV. Effect on Intestinal Gas......Page 546
V. Effect on Diarrhea......Page 550
VII. Use in Deodorizing Ostomies......Page 551
IX. Charcoal as a Vehicle for Prolonged-release Medications......Page 552
X. Charcoal Injected Intravenously......Page 555
XI. Summary......Page 556
XII. References......Page 557
I. Snake Venom Adsorption......Page 559
II. Virus Adsorption......Page 560
IV. Bacteria Adsorption......Page 561
V. Bacterial Toxin Adsorption......Page 562
VI. Fungal Toxin Adsorption......Page 563
VII. Adsorption of Enzymes and Other Proteins......Page 564
VIII. Hormone Adsorption......Page 565
X. Adsorption of Whiskey Congeners......Page 566
XI. Catalysis of Reactions by Activated Charcoal......Page 567
XIII. Charcoal Use in Concentrating Drugs from Biological Fluids......Page 568
XIV. Use of Charcoal in the Assay of Biochemicals......Page 569
XV. Protection of Crop Plant Seedlings from Herbicide Damage......Page 571
XVI. Effect of Charcoal on Plant Tissue Cultures......Page 575
XVII. Effect of Charcoal on Bacterial Cultures......Page 576
XVIII. Effects of Charcoal on Insects......Page 579
XIX. Summary......Page 580
XX. References......Page 581
I. Positive Aspects of Activated Charcoal......Page 588
II. Some Negative Aspects of Activated Charcoal......Page 589
III. Unsettled Issues......Page 590
IV. Recommendations......Page 591
V. References......Page 592
A......Page 593
B......Page 594
C......Page 595
E......Page 596
I......Page 597
M......Page 598
P......Page 599
R......Page 600
T......Page 601
W......Page 602