A Compendium of Principles and Practice of Laser Biophotonics in Oral Medicine

Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
List of Abbreviations
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 2
History of Lasers
Chapter 3
The Laser Device
	3.1. Active Medium
		3.1.1. Working of an LED/p-n Junction [10]
		3.1.2. Pumping Mechanism
		3.1.3. Optical Resonator
	3.2. Laser Delivery Systems [10]
		3.2.1. Optical Fibre [10-12]
		3.2.2. Hollow Waveguide [10-12]
		3.2.3. Articulated Arm [10-12]
Chapter 4
The Laser Beam
	4.1. Monochromaticity  or Near Monochromaticity
	4.2. Coherence
	4.3. Collimated with Directionality
	4.4. Radiance
	4.5. Focusability
	4.6. Spectral Coverage
	4.7. Gating and Pulsing
	4.8. Beam Profile
	4.9. Spot Geometry
	4.10. Focal Length and Focal Point
Chapter 5
Laser-Tissue Interactions
	5.1. Reflection and Refraction
	5.2. Absorption and Transmission [10-12]
	5.3. Scattering [4, 10, 11]
	5.4. Tissue Effects of Laser Irradiation
Chapter 6
Laser Terminologies and Dosimetry
Chapter 7
Laser Hazards  and Contraindications
	7.1. Ocular Injury/Hazards
	7.2. Tissue Hazards
	7.3. Environmental Hazards
	7.4. Combustion Hazards
	7.5. Electrical Hazards
	7.6. Contraindications of Lasers
		7.6.1. Justified Contraindications
		7.6.2. Contraindications Doubtful Under Certain Conditions
		7.6.3. Erroneous Contraindications
Chapter 8
Laser Safety
	8.1. Laser Device Hardware Safety Measures  [11, 35, 36]
	8.2. Safety Measures During Laser Use [11]
	8.3. Fire and Electrical Control Measures [46]
	8.4. Laser Test Fire Procedure [11]
	8.5. Eye Protection During Laser Use [35, 36, 45]
	8.6. Control Measures  for Airborne Contaminants [35, 46]
Chapter 9
Low Power Lasers  and Their Applications
	9.1. Introduction to Low Power Lasers
	9.2. Cellular Mechanisms of Photobiomodulation
		9.2.1. NO Hypothesis
		9.2.2. Transient Local Heating Hypothesis
		9.2.3. Mitochondrial Respiration and ATP
		9.2.4. Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and Gene Transcription
		9.2.5. Role in Gene Expression [54]
		9.2.6. LLLT- Anti Inflammatory Effects
		9.2.7. LLLT- Analgesia
	9.3. Principles of Photodynamic Therapy
		9.3.1. Historical Background
		9.3.2. Photosensitizers
			9.3.2.1. Light Applicators
		9.3.3. Mechanisms of PDT Action
			9.3.3.1. Photophysics and Photochemistry [69, 70, 71]
			9.3.3.2. Direct Cytotoxicity [4, 72, 73]
			9.3.3.3. Vascular Effect
			9.3.3.4. Immune Responses
	9.4. Lasers in Recurrent Aphthous Ulcerations
		9.4.1. Laser Irradiation Protocol
			9.4.1.1. Pain Relief
			9.4.1.2. Acceleration of Wound Healing
			9.4.1.3. RAU Prevention
	9.5. Lasers in Burning Mouth Syndrome
		9.5.1. Laser Irradiation Protocol
			9.5.1.1. LLLT in BMS [4, 10]
	9.6. Lasers in Temporomandibular Disorders
		9.6.1. Mechanism of Action [4, 10, 11]
			9.6.1.1. Laser Irradiation Protocol
			9.6.1.2. Considerations for LLLT of TMJ [10]
	9.7. Lasers in Lymphatic Drainage of Oedema
		9.7.1. Laser Irradiation Parameters
	9.8. Lasers in Herpes Infections
	9.9. Other Applications of LLLT
		9.9.1. LLLT in Alveolar Osteitis
		9.9.2. LLLT in Neurosensory Recovery after Injury to Inferior Alveolar Nerve
		9.9.3. LLLT in Bells Palsy
		9.9.4. LLLT in Trigeminal Neuralgia
		9.9.5. LLLT in Post-Herpetic Neuralgia
		9.9.6. Oral Lesions in Pemphigus
		9.9.7. Oral Lesions in Steven-Jhonson’s Syndrome and TEN
		9.9.8. Oral Mucositis
		9.9.9. Bisphosphonate Induced Osteoradionecrosis
		9.9.10. Pericoronitis
Chapter 10
Lasers in Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders
	10.1. Introduction to Lasers in Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders
	10.2. Lasers in Oral Leukoplakia
		10.2.1. Lasers-Assisted Excision versus Scalpel Excision
			10.2.1.1. Laser Irradiation Protocol: [10, 13]
			10.2.1.2. New Concepts for the Recurrence and New Occurrence  of Oral Leukoplakia [135]
	10.3. Lasers in Actinic Chelitis
		10.3.1. Laser-Assisted Excision and Resurfacing
		10.3.2. Laser-Assisted Photodynamic Therapy
	10.4. Lasers in Oral Erythroplakia
		10.4.1. Laser-Assisted Excision
		10.4.2. Laser-Assisted Photodynamic Therapy
	10.5. Lasers in Oral Lichen Planus
Chapter 11
Surgical Lasers  and Their Applications
	11.1. Introduction to Lasers in Oral Soft  Tissue Surgery
		11.1.1. Basic Considerations for Choosing Laser as a Surgical Tool [10-12]
		11.1.2. Scalpel versus Lasers
	11.2. Lasers in Oral Fibromas
	11.3. Lasers in Oral Papillomas
	11.4. Lasers in Oral Lipomas
	11.5. Lasers in Oral Pyogenic Granulomas
	11.6. Lasers in Oral Vascular Lesions
		11.6.1. Lasers in Oral Haemangiomas
		11.6.2. Lasers in Lymphangiomas
	11.7. Lasers in Salivary Gland Pathosis
		11.7.1. Lasers in Oral Mucocele
		11.7.2. Lasers in Sialolithiasis
Chapter 12
Laser Diagnostics
	12.1. Laser In Caries Detection
		12.1.1. Quantitative Light-Induced Fluorescence (QLF)
		12.1.2. Fibre-Optic Transillumination (FOTI) and Digital Imaging Fibre-Optic Transillumination (DIFOTI)
		12.1.3. Polarization-Sensitive Optical Coherence  Tomography (PS-OCT)
		12.1.4. Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS)
		12.1.5. Raman Spectroscopy
	12.2. Laser Doppler Flowmetry
	12.3. Optothermal Radiometry
	12.4. Optical Coherence Tomography
		12.4.1. Principle of OCT [217-219]
			12.4.1.1. Different Versions of Optical Coherence Tomography
				12.4.1.1.1. Time-Domain (TD)‑OCT
				12.4.1.1.2. Fourier Domain Optical Coherence Tomography
				12.4.1.1.3. Polarization Sensitive Optical Coherence Tomography
				12.4.1.1.4. Doppler Optical Coherence Tomography
				12.4.1.1.5. Differential Absorption Optical Coherence Tomography
				12.4.1.1.6. Molecular Optical Coherence Tomography
		12.4.2. Applications of Dental OCT
			12.4.2.1. Oral Vascular Malformation
			12.4.2.2. Mucocutaneous Lesions
		12.4.3. Limitations of Optical Coherence Tomography  [217-219]
		12.4.4. Advantages of OCT [10, 218]
	12.5. Confocal Laser Endomicroscopy
	12.6. Photodynamic Diagnosis
	12.7. Laser Spectroscopy
		12.7.1. Instrumentation
	12.8. Laser Flowcytometry
		12.8.1. Applications to Clinical Practice [226-232]
Chapter 13
Miscellaneous Applications  of Lasers
	13.1. Role in Dentinal Hypersensitivity
	13.2. Sinusitis
	13.3. Somatosensory Tinnitus
	13.4. Laser Acupuncture
	13.5. Antimicrobial Photodynamic  Therapy [10-12]
	13.6. Lasers in Caries Prevention [10, 12]
	13.7. Laser Induced Tooth Analgesia
	13.8. Lasers in Sterilization
	13.9. Use of Lasers in Other Fields of Dentistry
Conclusion
References
About the Authors
Index
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