A Brief History of Science: As Seen Through the Development of Scientific Instruments

Cover......Page 1
Copyright page......Page 8
Contents......Page 9
Preface......Page 13
In the text......Page 11
1.1  The Ptolemaic universe......Page 73
2.1  Kepler\'s first two laws......Page 85
2.2  Snel\'s law......Page 88
2.3  Vessels in semen reported by van Leeuwenhoek......Page 103
2.4  Newton\'s diagram of a prism and lens system for analysing the sun\'s spectrum......Page 114
Light interference......Page 117
3.1  Map of France showing the five astronomical stations used for establishing the metric system......Page 126
3.2  The Voyager spacecraft, showing most of the external instrumentation......Page 140
4.1  Gilbert\'s electroscope......Page 144
4.2  Faraday\'s rotation apparatus......Page 156
5.1  Newton\'s and Leibniz\'s notations for differentials......Page 172
6.1  Mendeleyev\'s first draft of the periodic table......Page 220
6.2  Phosphorus pentoxide......Page 230
6.3  Benzene......Page 231
6.4  The seven crystal systems......Page 234
6.5  X-ray diffraction apparatus......Page 241
7.1  Hertz\'s electromagnetic wave apparatus......Page 256
7.2  Electromagnetic field of light......Page 257
7.3  Chadwick\'s neutron apparatus......Page 292
Fermi\'s chain reaction......Page 299
8.1  Solar eclipse of 3 May 1715: the path of totality......Page 330
8.2  Cavendish\'s torsion apparatus......Page 337
8.3  H-R diagram of stellar magnitudes......Page 344
10.1  An example of a Feynman diagram......Page 390
10.2  Charpak\'s particle dectector......Page 397
Plates......Page 12
Christiaan Huygens presents his pendulum clock to Louis XIV, King of France......Page 27
Isaac Newton\'s reflecting telescope......Page 28
Michael Faraday, 1791–1867......Page 29
Alessandro Volta demonstrating his electric pile to Napoleon, Emperor of France......Page 30
Dimitry Mendeleyev, 1834–1907......Page 31
Marie Curie in her laboratory, 1867–1934......Page 32
Ernest Rutherford, 1871–1937......Page 33
Nuclear Physics Congress, Rome 1931: the group includes Niels Bohr, Marie Curie, Paul Ehrenfest, Enrico Fermi, Werner Heisenberg, Ernest Lawrence, Guglielmo Marconi and Robert Millikin......Page 34
Enrico Fermi, 1901–1954......Page 35
Edwin Hubble with the Schmidt telescope at the Mount Palomar observatory, California......Page 36
C.T.R. Wilson\'s original cloud chamber......Page 37
Francis Aston\'s first mass spectrograph, 1919......Page 38
An early model cyclotron with (from left to right) Donald Cooksey, D. Corson, Ernest Lawrence (the inventor), Robert Thornton, John Backus and W. Salisbury, with Louis Alvarez and Edwin McMillan on top......Page 39
Lord Rosse\'s Leviathan – the giant telescope built in the grounds of his Irish estate for observing nebulae......Page 40
The Hubble space telescope......Page 41
Aerial view of CERN – the white lines show the underground location of the tunnels......Page 42
Science and the human mind......Page 43
Fire......Page 50
The ceramic breakthrough......Page 54
The technology of metals......Page 55
The discovery and development of glass......Page 58
Writing and the scientific record......Page 59
Measurement – essential to all science......Page 62
Science and the ancient world......Page 66
Islam and the medieval legacy......Page 77
The Renaissance transformation......Page 78
The science of light......Page 86
Galileo and his telescope......Page 90
The microscopic world revealed......Page 99
Isaac Newton\'s optics......Page 108
Travel and navigation......Page 119
Steam and hot air......Page 123
Uniform standard measures......Page 124
Steam locomotion: the first powered transport......Page 128
The electric telegraph......Page 130
The postage stamp......Page 131
Edison\'s electric light......Page 133
Hertz\'s waves......Page 134
Hydrocarbon fuels......Page 135
Powered flight......Page 136
Rockets and space......Page 137
Static electricity......Page 143
The electrodynamic revolution......Page 148
Electromagnetism......Page 151
The breakthrough into field theory......Page 159
Heat and work......Page 161
Newton\'s dynamics......Page 162
Mathematics and the scientific method......Page 168
Time, motion and matter......Page 173
New dimensions: temperature and pressure......Page 175
Gravity and Newton\'s concept of mass......Page 177
The dynamics of Huygens\' pendulum......Page 179
The conversion of energy......Page 182
Premodern chemistry......Page 187
Lavoisier: father of chemistry......Page 188
Humphry Davy......Page 195
The electrochemical breakthrough......Page 196
Dalton\'s law for compounding chemicals......Page 202
Chemical notation......Page 207
Photosynthesis and the life of plants......Page 210
Photography: the inorganic chemistry of light......Page 211
Spectroscopy: the rediscovery of light......Page 212
Mendeleyev\'s periodic table......Page 219
The noble elements......Page 226
Organic chemistry......Page 227
The magic of crystals......Page 232
Rays and particles......Page 245
Acceleration and bombardment......Page 248
The nuclear reactor......Page 250
The cathode ray tube......Page 252
Radio transmission......Page 255
Radioactivity......Page 259
The atomic nucleus......Page 269
The Rutherford-Bohr atom......Page 271
Niels Bohr in the Second World War......Page 282
The neutron: a missing link......Page 287
The cyclotron......Page 293
The Manhattan Project......Page 305
Quanta......Page 313
Celestial dynamics: Newton\'s legacy......Page 323
Astrophysics......Page 340
Astrochemistry and solar physics......Page 359
The dimensions of heat......Page 367
The thermodynamic breakthrough......Page 370
The liquefaction of gases......Page 372
Helium: the ultimate challenge......Page 376
The strange world on the threshold of absolute zero......Page 379
SQUIDs......Page 385
Particles and quanta......Page 387
The Higgs boson......Page 392
The computer revolution......Page 393
Quantum measurement......Page 398
1  From the mastery of fire to science in antiquity......Page 401
2  The rebirth of science: Copernicus to Newton......Page 404
3  Science, technology and communication......Page 407
4  Discovering electricity......Page 408
5  Energy: science refounded......Page 409
6  Chemistry: matter and its transformations......Page 411
7  The new age of physics......Page 415
8  Astronomy: 1542–2001......Page 420
9  Physics: ground zero......Page 422
10  Big science......Page 423
Bibliography......Page 424
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V......Page 440
X......Page 441
A.  The Periodic Table of the Elements......Page 443
B.  Table of Elementary Particles......Page 444
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B......Page 446
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