3-Dimensional Modeling in Cardiovascular Disease

Cover
3-Dimensional Modeling in Cardiovascular Disease
Copyright
List of Contributors
Foreword
Introduction
	References
1. The Evolution of 3D Modeling in Cardiac Disease
	Introduction
	3D Anatomical Models (Fig. 1.1)
		Statistical Shape Models
		Extended Reality Models
	Computational Mechanistic Models (Fig. 1.2)
		Finite Element Modeling
		Computational Fluid Dynamics
		Fluid–Structure Interaction
	Physical Models—3D Printing (Fig. 1.3)
	Discussion
	References
2. The Technical Basics of Cardiac 3D Printing
	Introduction
	Additive Manufacturing Technologies for Producing 3D-Printed Models
		Model Slicing
		Printing Technologies
		Vat Photopolymerization
			Process
			Equipment
			Postprocessing
			Materials
			Print time and resolution
		Material Jetting
			Process
			Equipment
			Postprocessing
			Materials
			Print time and resolution
		Material Extrusion
			Process
			Equipment
			Postprocessing
			Materials
			Print time and resolution
		Binder Jetting
			Process
			Equipment
			Postprocessing
			Materials
			Print time and resolution
		Powder Bed Fusion
			Process
			Equipment
			Postprocessing
			Materials
			Print time and resolution
			Generating 3D-printable models from a patient's DICOM images
			The process of designing clinical 3D-printed models
		Segmentation and STL Generation
			STL postprocessing for model and device design
			Establishing the quality of medical 3D-printed models
		Equipment QC
		Interpretive QA
	Summary
	References
3. From Multiplanar Imaging to Physical 3D Models: 3D Printing as an Adjunct to Congenital Heart Surgery
	Imaging
	Postprocessing
	3D Printing
	Utilization of 3D Modeling and Printing in Surgical Management of Congenital Heart Diseases
	Morphology Teaching of Congenital Heart Diseases Using 3D Modeling and Printing
	Hands-On Surgical Training of Congenital Heart Surgery with 3D Print Models
	Current Limitations and Future Directions
	References
4. 3D Modeling as an Adjunct to Complex Congenital Catheter Interventions
	Introduction
		3D Modeling in Congenital Heart Disease
		3D Modeling in Congenital Catheterization
		Complex Congenital Interventions
		Preprocedure Patient and Parental Communication and Informed Consent
		The Future of 3D Modeling and Congenital Interventions
			Computer generated 3D modeling and finite element analysis
		Bespoke Device Creation
		Stent Printing
		Device Creation in Under-resourced Countries
		Regulation
	Conclusion
	References
5. Instructional Case Examples Utilizing Three-Dimensional Modeling in Congenital Heart Disease
	Introduction
		Dynamic 3D Modeling with Cardiac MRI in Infants
	Case 1
		3D Rotational Angiography
	Case 2
		3D Overlay
	Case 3
		3D Modeling and Rapid Prototyping
	Case 4
	Case 5
	Case 6
	Case 7
	Conclusion
	References
6. Is There Role for 3D Modeling in Planning Acquired Heart Disease Surgery?
	Valves
		Aortic Valve
		Mitral Valve
		Pulmonary and Tricuspid Valves
	Left Atrial Appendage
	Aorta and Great Arteries
	Hypertrophic Obstructive Cardiomyopathy
	Cardiac Tumors
	Cardiac Aneurysms
	Other Cardiac Surgical Applications
	Conclusion and Future Outlook
	References
7. 3D Modeling as a Tool for Structural Heart Interventions
	Structural Heart Interventions
		3D Modeling Techniques for Planning Structural Heart Interventions
			Digital modeling
			Computational modeling and simulations
			3D-printed modeling for planning structural heart interventions
			Material selection for 3D printing patient-specific cardiac models
		Structural Heart Interventions
			Aortic valve replacement
			Mitral valve repair
			Left Atrial (LA) closure
			Atrial septal defect closure
		Computational Modeling Applications in Planning Structural Heart Interventions
		3D-Printed Modeling for Planning Structural Heart Interventions
		Challenges and Future Directions in 3D Modeling Structural Heart Interventions
	References
8. The Role of 3D Modeling in the Treatment of Advanced Heart Failure
	Background
		Heart Failure
		Mechanical Circulatory Support
		Heart Transplantation
		3D Modeling and Its Use in Advance Heart Failure
	3D Modeling for Mechanical Circulatory Support Planning
		Background
		Methods
		Recent Findings
	3D Modeling for Mechanical Circulatory Support Design
		Background
		Methods
		Recent Findings
	3D Modeling for Heart Transplantation
		Background
		Methods
		Recent Findings
	Conclusion
	References
	Further Reading
9. Current Challenges to the Use of 3D Modeling as a Standard Clinical Tool
	Introduction
	Image Acquisition
		Use of Sedation
		Use of Contrast
		Image Artifact
		Use of Previously Acquired Images
		Resolution of Imaging Modalities
			CT
			3D echocardiography
			MRI
	Virtual Reconstruction
	Additive Manufacturing
		Accuracy of Models
		Material and Machine Limitations
		Technological Opportunity
	Logistics of Running a 3D Printing/Additive Manufacturing Lab
		Cost
		Time
	Virtual and Augmented Reality
	Conclusion
	References
10. Does 3D Modeling Alter Clinical Outcomes? What Are the Data?
	Introduction
	What Is the Level of Evidence of the Clinical Study?
	Does the Article Evaluate the Impact on Preoperative Management Decision?
	Does the Article Assess the Reduction in Operating Time?
	Does the Article Assess Surgical Morbidity and Mortality?
	Does the Article Assess Health Professional's Perception?
	Does the Article Assess Patient and Parent's Perception?
	Does the Article Adequately Discuss the Cost of the 3D Printing Process?
	Does the Article Compare 3D Printing with Existing Alternatives?
	Conclusion
	Abbreviations
	References
11. 3D Modeling as a Medical Education Resource, Simulation, and Communication Tool
	Introduction
	3D Models as a Communication Tool
	3D Models as an Educational Resource
		Impact on Cardiovascular Disease Education
		Impact on Collaboration Between Academic Institutions
		Increase Access to Pathology Specimens
		Improved Visualization of Critical Features
	3D Models for Simulation
		Procedural Simulation
		Care Delivery Simulation
	Conclusion
	References
12. Computational Modeling and Personalized Surgery
	Introduction
	Electric Analogy of Blood Flow
		Applications
	One-Dimensional Blood Flow Modeling
		Applications
	Three-Dimensional Flow Modeling
		Patient-Specific Model Construction
		Governing Equations and Boundary Conditions
		0D–3D Coupling
		Data Assimilation and Uncertainty Quantification
		Fluid–Structure Interaction
		Applications
			Case study: coronary bypass graft surgery
			Case study: surgerical design for the Fontan procedure
			Case study: modeling surgical repair for peripheral pulmonary stenosis
		Challenges and Future Perspective
	References
13. 3D Bioprinting: What Does the Future Hold?
	Introduction
	Development of 3D Bioprinting of Cardiac Tissue: Current Approaches
		Early Studies with Cardiac Progenitor Cells
		Experimentation with Bioinks
		Introduction of Vasculature
		Spatially Patterning Tissues
	Methods of 3D Bioprinting Cardiac Tissue: A Comparison
		Microextrusion-Based Printing
		Laser Printing
		Vacuum-Suction Printing
		Omnidirectional Printing
	The Future of 3D Bioprinting of Cardiac Tissue
		Bioprinting A Whole Heart
			Resolution
			Speed
			Complexity and scaling up
			Biomaterial compatibility
			Cost
		Aortic Heart Valve
		Heart Development
		Ethics of Building a Heart
			Access for patients
			Safety
			Human enhancement
	Conclusion
	References
Index
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