, 4th edition, Paperback

Biology How Life Works by Morris (4th Edition)
Cover Page
Front Matter
	Cover Page
	Accessibility
	Halftitle Page
	Title Page
	Copyright Page
	Dedication
	About the Authors
	Dear Students and Instructors,
	What’s New in the Fourth Edition?
	About Achieve
	New Topics & Major Revisions
	Acknowledgments
	Brief Contents
	Contents
Part 1 From Cells to Organisms
	Chapter 1 Chemical, Cellular, and Evolutionary Foundations of Life
		1.1 Scientific Inquiry
			Observation allows us to draw tentative explanations called hypotheses
			A hypothesis makes predictions that can be tested by observation and experiments
			A theory is a general explanation of natural phenomena supported by many experiments and observations.
		1.2 Chemical and Physical Principles
			The living and nonliving worlds follow the same chemical rules and obey the same physical laws.
			Scientific inquiry shows that living organisms come from other living organisms.
		1.3 The Cell
			Membranes define cells and spaces within cells.
			Nucleic acids store and transmit information needed for growth, function, and reproduction.
			Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that sustains life.
		1.4 Evolution
			Variation in populations provides the raw material for evolution.
			Evolution can be depicted as a tree showing a nested pattern of relatedness among species.
			Evolution can be studied by means of experiments.
		1.5 Ecological Systems
			Ecological systems are shaped by organisms and the physical environment.
			Ecological interactions play an important role in evolution.
		1.6 The Human Footprint
		Core Concepts Summary
	Case 1 Life’s Origin: Homeostasis, Information, and Energy
	Chapter 2 Molecules of Life
		2.1 Properties of Atoms
			Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
			Electrons occupy regions of space called orbitals.
			Elements have recurring, or periodic, chemical properties.
		2.2 Molecules and Chemical Bonds
			A covalent bond results when two atoms share electrons.
			A polar covalent bond is characterized by unequal sharing of electrons.
			An ionic bond forms between oppositely charged ions.
			A chemical reaction involves breaking and forming chemical bonds.
		2.3 Water
			Water is a polar molecule.
			A hydrogen bond is an interaction between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom.
			Hydrogen bonds give water many unusual properties.
			pH is a measure of the concentration of protons in solution.
		2.4 Carbon
			Carbon atoms form four covalent bonds.
			Carbon-based molecules are structurally and functionally diverse.
		2.5 Organic Molecules
			Functional groups add chemical character to carbon chains.
			Proteins are composed of amino acids.
			Nucleic acids encode genetic information in their nucleotide sequence.
			Complex carbohydrates are made up of simple sugars.
			Lipids are hydrophobic molecules.
		2.6 The First Molecules of Life
			The building blocks of life can be generated in the laboratory.
			Experiments show how life’s building blocks can form macromolecules.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 3 Cells, Membranes, and Homeostasis
		3.1 Cell Theory
			The cell theory places the cell at the center of life.
			The structure and function of cells are closely related.
			Cells can be classified as prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
		3.2 Structure of Cell Membranes
			Cell membranes are composed of two layers of lipids.
			The first cell membranes may have formed spontaneously, capturing macromolecules.
			Cell membranes are dynamic.
			Proteins associate with cell membranes.
		3.3 Membrane Transport
			The cell membrane maintains homeostasis.
			Passive transport involves diffusion.
			Primary active transport uses the energy of ATP.
			Secondary active transport is driven by an electrochemical gradient.
			Many cells maintain size and composition using active transport.
			The cell wall and cytoskeleton help to maintain cell shape.
		3.4 The Endomembrane System
			The endomembrane system compartmentalizes the cell.
			The nucleus houses the genome and is the site of RNA synthesis.
			The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in protein and lipid synthesis.
			The Golgi apparatus modifies and sorts proteins and lipids.
			Lysosomes degrade macromolecules.
		3.5 Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
			Mitochondria provide the eukaryotic cell with most of its usable energy.
			Chloroplasts capture energy from sunlight.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 4 Nucleic Acids and Information Flow
		4.1 Chemical Composition and Structure of DNA
			A DNA strand consists of subunits called nucleotides.
			DNA is a linear polymer of nucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds.
			Cellular DNA molecules take the form of a double helix.
		4.2 DNA Structure and Function
			DNA molecules are copied in the process of replication, which relies on base pairing.
			RNA is an intermediary between DNA and protein.
		4.3 Transcription
			RNA is a polymer of nucleotides in which the 5-carbon sugar is ribose.
			The earliest cells may have used RNA for both information storage and catalysis.
			In transcription, DNA is used as a template to make complementary RNA.
			Transcription starts at a promoter and ends at a terminator.
			RNA polymerase adds successive nucleotides to the 3′ end of the transcript.
			The RNA polymerase complex is a molecular machine that opens, transcribes, and closes DNA.
		4.4 RNA Processing
			Primary transcripts in prokaryotes are translated immediately.
			Primary transcripts in eukaryotes undergo several types of chemical modification.
			Some noncoding RNA transcripts are processed differently from protein-coding transcripts and have functions of their own.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 5 Protein Structure, Function, and Synthesis
		5.1 Molecular Structure of Proteins
			Amino acids differ in their side chains.
			Successive amino acids in proteins are connected by peptide bonds.
			The sequence of amino acids dictates protein folding, which determines function.
			Secondary structures result from hydrogen bonding in the polypeptide backbone.
			Tertiary structures result from interactions between amino acid side chains.
			Polypeptide subunits can come together to form quaternary structures.
			Chaperones help some proteins fold properly.
		5.2 Protein Synthesis
			Translation uses many molecules found in all cells.
			The genetic code shows the correspondence between codons and amino acids.
			Translation consists of initiation, elongation, and termination.
			Transfer RNAs may originally have served in RNA synthesis.
		5.3 Regulation of Protein Synthesis and Sorting
			Protein synthesis is regulated at multiple levels.
			Protein sorting directs proteins to their proper location in or out of the cell.
		5.4 Protein Origins and Evolution
			Most proteins are composed of modular folding domains.
			Amino acid sequences evolve through mutation and selection.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Visual Synthesis 1: Gene Expression
	Chapter 6 Making Life Work
		6.1 An Overview of Metabolism
			Organisms can be classified according to their energy and carbon sources.
			Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that sustain life.
		6.2 Kinetic and Potential Energy
			Kinetic energy and potential energy are the two basic forms of energy.
			Chemical energy is a form of potential energy.
			ATP is a readily accessible form of cellular energy.
		6.3 Laws of Thermodynamics
			The first law of thermodynamics: energy is conserved.
			The second law of thermodynamics: energy transformations always result in an increase in disorder in the universe.
		6.4 Chemical Reactions
			A chemical reaction occurs when molecules interact.
			The laws of thermodynamics determine whether a chemical reaction requires or releases energy available to do work.
			The hydrolysis of ATP is an exergonic reaction.
			Nonspontaneous reactions are often coupled to spontaneous reactions.
		6.5 Enzymes
			Enzymes reduce the activation energy of a chemical reaction.
			Enzymes form a complex with reactants and products.
			Enzymes bind substrates at active sites, which are highly specific.
			Some enzymes rely on cofactors for their activity.
			Enzyme kinetics describes the rate of chemical reactions.
			Enzyme activity is affected by temperature and pH.
			Enzyme activity can be influenced by inhibitors and activators.
			Allosteric enzymes regulate key metabolic pathways.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 7 Cellular Respiration
		7.1 An Overview of Cellular Respiration
			Cellular respiration uses chemical energy stored in molecules such as carbohydrates and lipids to produce ATP.
			ATP is generated by substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation.
			Redox reactions play a central role in cellular respiration.
			Cellular respiration occurs in four stages.
		7.2 Glycolysis
		7.3 Pyruvate Oxidation
		7.4 The Citric Acid Cycle
			The citric acid cycle produces ATP and reduced electron carriers.
			Some bacteria run the citric acid cycle in reverse.
		7.5 Oxidative Phosphorylation
			The electron transport chain transfers electrons and pumps protons.
			The proton gradient is a source of potential energy.
			ATP synthase converts the energy of the proton gradient into the energy of ATP.
		7.6 Anaerobic Metabolism
			Fermentation extracts energy from glucose in the absence of oxygen.
			Cellular respiration may have evolved in a stepwise fashion.
		7.7 Metabolic Integration
			Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in animals and starch in plants.
			Sugars other than glucose contribute to glycolysis.
			Fatty acids and proteins are useful sources of energy.
			The intracellular level of ATP is a key regulator of cellular respiration.
			Exercise requires several types of fuel molecules and the coordination of metabolic pathways.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 8 Photosynthesis
		8.1 An Overview of Photosynthesis
			Photosynthesis is widely distributed.
			Photosynthesis consists of two stages: light capture and carbon fixation.
			In eukaryotic cells, photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts.
		8.2 Capturing Sunlight into Chemical Forms
			Chlorophyll is the major entry point for light energy in photosynthesis.
			Antenna chlorophyll passes light energy to reaction centers.
			The photosynthetic electron transport chain connects two photosystems.
			The accumulation of protons in the thylakoid lumen drives the synthesis of ATP.
			Cyclic electron transport increases the production of ATP.
		8.3 The Calvin Cycle
			The incorporation of CO2 is catalyzed by the enzyme rubisco.
			NADPH is the reducing agent of the Calvin cycle.
			The regeneration of RuBP requires ATP.
			The reactions of the Calvin cycle were identified using radioactive CO2.
			Carbohydrates are stored in the form of starch.
		8.4 Photosynthetic Challenges
			Excess light energy can damage cells.
			Photorespiration leads to a net loss of energy and carbon.
			Photosynthesis captures just a small percentage of incoming solar energy.
		8.5 The Evolution of Photosynthesis
			The ability to capture energy from sunlight is likely to have evolved in steps.
			The ability to use water as an electron donor in photosynthesis evolved in cyanobacteria.
			Eukaryotic organisms are believed to have gained photosynthesis by endosymbiosis.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Visual Synthesis 2: Harnessing Energy
	Case 2 Cancer: Cell Signaling, Form, and Division
	Chapter 9 Cell Signaling
		9.1 Principles of Cell Signaling
			Cells communicate using chemical signals that bind to receptors.
			Signaling involves receptor activation, signal transduction, response, and termination.
			The response of a cell to a signaling molecule depends on the cell type.
		9.2 Distance Between Cells
			Endocrine signaling acts over long distances.
			Signaling can occur over short distances.
			Signaling can occur by direct cell–cell contact.
		9.3 Signaling Receptors
			Receptors for polar signaling molecules are located on the cell surface.
			Receptors for nonpolar signaling molecules are located in the interior of the cell.
			Cell-surface receptors act like molecular switches.
		9.4 G Protein-Coupled Receptors
			The first step in cell signaling is receptor activation.
			Signals are often amplified in the cytosol.
			Signals lead to a cellular response.
			Signaling pathways are eventually terminated.
		9.5 Receptor Kinases
			Receptor kinases phosphorylate each other, activate intracellular signaling pathways, lead to a response, and are terminated.
			Cell-signaling errors can lead to cancer.
			Signaling pathways are integrated to produce a response in a cell.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 10 Cell and Tissue Form
		10.1 Tissues and Organs
			Tissues and organs are communities of cells.
			The structure of skin relates to its function.
		10.2 The Cytoskeleton
			Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules are polymers of protein subunits.
			Microfilaments and microtubules are dynamic structures.
			Motor proteins associate with microfilaments and microtubules to cause movement.
			The cytoskeleton is an ancient feature of cells.
		10.3 Cell Junctions
			Cell adhesion molecules allow cells to attach to other cells and to the extracellular matrix.
			Anchoring junctions connect adjacent cells and are reinforced by the cytoskeleton.
			Tight junctions prevent the movement of substances through the space between cells.
			Molecules pass between cells through communicating junctions.
		10.4 The Extracellular Matrix
			The extracellular matrix of plants is the cell wall.
			The extracellular matrix is abundant in connective tissues of animals.
			Altered cell adhesion proteins allow cancer cells to spread throughout the body.
			Extracellular matrix proteins influence cell shape and gene expression.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 11 DNA Replication and Cell Division
		11.1 The Cell Cycle
			Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission.
			Eukaryotic cells divide by mitotic cell division.
			The cell cycle proceeds in phases.
		11.2 DNA Replication
			DNA replicates semiconservatively.
			DNA replication involves many enzymes.
			In replicating DNA, one daughter strand is synthesized continuously and the other in a series of short pieces.
			DNA polymerase is self-correcting because of its proofreading function.
		11.3 Replication of Chromosomes
			Replication of DNA in chromosomes starts at many places almost simultaneously.
			Telomerase restores tips of linear chromosomes shortened during DNA replication.
		11.4 Mitotic Cell Division
			In eukaryotic cells, chromosomes come in pairs called homologous chromosomes.
			Prophase: Chromosomes condense and become visible.
			Prometaphase: Chromosomes attach to the mitotic spindle.
			Metaphase: Chromosomes align as a result of dynamic changes in the mitotic spindle.
			Anaphase: Sister chromatids fully separate.
			Telophase: Nuclear envelopes re-form around newly segregated chromosomes.
			The parent cell divides into two daughter cells by cytokinesis.
		11.5 Cell Cycle Regulation
			Cyclin–CDK complexes control passage through the cell cycle.
			Cell cycle progression requires successful passage through multiple checkpoints.
			Cancer can result from mutations in genes that control cell division.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Visual Synthesis 3: Cellular Communities
	Case 3 Your Personal Genome: Variation and Inheritance
	Chapter 12 Genomes and Biotechnology
		12.1 DNA Manipulation
			The polymerase chain reaction selectively amplifies regions of DNA.
			Electrophoresis separates DNA fragments by size.
			Restriction enzymes cleave DNA at particular short sequences.
			DNA strands can be separated and brought back together again.
		12.2 Recombinant DNA and DNA Editing
			Recombinant DNA combines DNA molecules from two or more sources.
			Recombinant DNA is the basis of genetically modified organisms.
			DNA editing can be used to alter gene sequences almost at will.
		12.3 DNA and Genome Sequencing
			DNA sequencing makes use of the principles of DNA replication.
			Complete genome sequences are assembled from smaller pieces.
			Sequences that are repeated complicate sequence assembly.
			New technologies are being developed to sequence genomes more quickly and cheaply.
			Your personal genome is unique.
		12.4 Genome Annotation
			Genome annotation identifies various types of sequence.
			Genome annotation includes searching for sequence motifs.
			Comparison of genomic DNA with messenger RNA reveals the intron–exon structure of genes.
			An annotated genome summarizes knowledge, guides research, and reveals evolutionary relationships among organisms.
		12.5 Genome Size and Packaging
			Gene number is not a good predictor of biological complexity.
			Viruses, bacteria, and archaea have small, compact genomes.
			Among eukaryotes, no relationship exists between genome size and organismal complexity.
			Bacterial cells package their DNA as a nucleoid composed of many loops.
			Eukaryotic cells package their DNA as one molecule per chromosome.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 13 Mutation and Genetic Variation
		13.1 Genotype and Phenotype
			Genotype is the genetic makeup of a cell or organism, and the phenotype is its observed characteristics.
			Some genetic differences are harmful.
			Some genetic differences are neutral.
			A few genetic differences are beneficial.
			The effect of a mutation may depend on the genotype and environment.
		13.2 The Nature of Mutations
			Mutation of individual nucleotides is rare, but mutation across the genome is common.
			Only germ-line mutations are transmitted to progeny.
			Your personal genome can tell you about your genetic risk factors for cancer.
			Mutations are random with regard to an organism’s needs.
		13.3 Small-Scale Mutations
			Point mutations are changes in a single nucleotide.
			The effect of a point mutation depends in part on where in the genome it occurs.
			Small insertions and deletions involve several nucleotides.
			Some mutations are due to the insertion of a transposable element.
		13.4 Chromosomal Mutations
			Duplications and deletions result in gain or loss of DNA.
			Gene families arise from gene duplication and divergence.
			Copy-number variation constitutes a significant proportion of genetic variation.
			Tandem repeats are useful in DNA typing.
			An inversion has a chromosomal region reversed in orientation.
			A reciprocal translocation joins segments from nonhomologous chromosomes.
		13.5 DNA Damage and Repair
			DNA damage can affect both DNA backbone and bases.
			Most DNA damage is corrected by specialized repair enzymes.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 14 Meiosis and Mendelian Inheritance
		14.1 Meiotic Cell Division
			Meiosis consists of one round of DNA synthesis and two rounds of cell division.
			Crossing over between DNA molecules results in exchange of genetic material.
			The first meiotic division reduces the chromosome number.
			The second meiotic division resembles mitosis.
			Division of the cytoplasm often differs between the sexes.
			Meiosis is the basis of sexual reproduction and increases genetic diversity.
		14.2 Nondisjunction
			Nondisjunction in meiosis results in extra or missing chromosomes.
			Some human disorders result from nondisjunction.
			Extra or missing sex chromosomes have fewer effects than extra autosomes.
		14.3 Foundations of Modern Transmission Genetics
			Mendel’s experimental organism was the garden pea.
			In crosses, one of the traits was dominant in the offspring.
		14.4 Segregation
			Genes come in pairs that segregate in the formation of reproductive cells.
			The principle of segregation was tested by predicting the outcome of crosses.
			A testcross is a mating to an individual with the homozygous recessive genotype.
			Segregation of alleles reflects the separation of chromosomes in meiosis.
			Dominance is not universally observed.
			The principles of transmission genetics are statistical and are stated in terms of probabilities.
		14.5 Independent Assortment
			Independent assortment is observed when genes segregate independently of one another.
			Independent assortment reflects the random alignment of chromosomes in meiosis.
			Phenotypic ratios can be modified by interactions between genes.
		14.6 Human Genetics
			Dominant traits appear in every generation.
			Recessive traits skip generations.
			Many genes have multiple alleles.
			Incomplete penetrance and variable expressivity can obscure inheritance patterns.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 15 Sex Chromosomes, Linked Genes, and Organelle Inheritance
		15.1 The X and Y Chromosomes
			In many animals, sex is genetically determined and associated with chromosomal differences.
			Segregation of the sex chromosomes predicts a 1 : 1 ratio of females to males.
		15.2 Inheritance of Genes in the X Chromosome
			X-linked inheritance was discovered through studies of male fruit flies with white eyes.
			Genes in the X chromosome exhibit a crisscross inheritance pattern.
			X-linkage provided the first experimental evidence that genes are in chromosomes.
			Genes in the X chromosome show characteristic patterns in human pedigrees.
		15.3 Genetic Linkage
			Nearby genes in the same chromosome show linkage.
			The frequency of recombination is a measure of the genetic distance between linked genes.
			Genetic mapping assigns a location to each gene along a chromosome.
			Genetic risk factors for disease can be localized by genetic mapping.
		15.4 Inheritance of Genes in the Y Chromosome
			Y-linked genes are transmitted from father to son.
			The Y chromosome can be used to trace paternal ancestry.
		15.5 Inheritance of Mitochondrial and Chloroplast DNA
			Mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes often show uniparental inheritance.
			Maternal inheritance is characteristic of human mitochondrial DNA.
			Mitochondrial DNA can be used to trace maternal ancestry.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 16 Complex Traits
		16.1 Heredity and Environment
			Complex traits are affected by the environment.
			Complex traits are affected by multiple genes.
			The relative effects of genes and environment on traits can be determined by differences among individuals in a population.
			Genetic and environmental effects can interact in unpredictable ways.
		16.2 Resemblance Among Relatives
			For complex traits, offspring resemble parents but show regression toward the mean.
			Heritability is the proportion of the total variation of a trait in a population due to genetic differences among individuals.
		16.3 Twin Studies
		16.4 Complex Traits in Health and Disease
			Many genes, each with a relatively small effect, contribute to the most common medical conditions and birth anomalies.
			Human height is affected by hundreds of genes.
			Personalized medicine can lead to more effective treatments.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 17 Genetic and Epigenetic Regulation
		17.1 Transcriptional Regulation in Prokaryotes
			Transcriptional regulation can be positive or negative.
			Lactose utilization in E. coli is the pioneering example of transcriptional regulation.
			The repressor protein binds with the operator and prevents transcription, but not in the presence of lactose.
			The function of the lactose operon was revealed by genetic studies.
			The lactose operon is also positively regulated by CRP–cAMP.
		17.2 Transcription and RNA Processing in Eukaryotes
			Transcription is a key control point in gene expression.
			RNA processing is also important in gene regulation.
		17.3 Messenger RNA to Phenotype in Eukaryotes
			Small regulatory RNAs promote mRNA degradation or inhibit translation.
			Translational regulation controls the rate, timing, and location of protein synthesis.
			Protein structure and chemical modification modulate protein effects on phenotype.
		17.4 Chromatin Remodeling and Epigenetics
			Gene expression can be influenced by chemical modification of DNA or histones.
			Gene expression can be regulated at the level of an entire chromosome.
			Your lifestyle choices can affect gene expression in your own genome.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 18 Genes and Development
		18.1 Genetic Basis of Development
			The fertilized egg is a totipotent cell.
			Cellular differentiation increasingly restricts alternative fates.
			Some cells can be reprogrammed for new therapies.
		18.2 Hierarchical Control
			Drosophila development proceeds through egg, larval, and adult stages.
			The egg is a highly polarized cell.
			Development proceeds by progressive regionalization and specification.
			Homeotic genes determine where different body parts develop in the organism.
		18.3 Master Regulators
			Animals have evolved a wide variety of eyes.
			Pax6 is a master regulator of eye development.
		18.4 Combinatorial Control
			Floral differentiation is a model for plant development.
			The identity of the floral organs is determined by combinatorial control.
		18.5 Cell Signaling in Development
			Programmed cell death is important in development and health.
			Apoptosis is regulated by external and internal signals.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Visual Synthesis 4: Genetic Variation and Inheritance
	Chapter 19 Viruses
		19.1 Viral Structures and Genomes
			A virus contains genetic material, but requires a host cell to replicate.
			The host range of a virus is determined by viral and host surface proteins.
			Viruses are all microscopic, but differ in size and shape.
			Viruses are capable of self-assembly within host cells.
			Viruses are classified based on their genomes and modes of replication.
			Viral genomes have high mutation rates.
		19.2 Viral Reproductive Cycles
			Viruses can follow a lytic or lysogenic pathway.
			Viruses have helped us understand the genetic basis of cancer.
		19.3 Viral Diseases
			Viral infection triggers an immune response.
			The influenza virus causes mild or severe disease.
			HIV is a retrovirus that targets the immune system and causes AIDS.
			SARS-CoV-2 and other viruses cause emerging diseases.
		19.4 Ecology of Viruses
			Viruses are abundant and play a role in the ocean.
			Viruses are abundant and play a role on land.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Visual Synthesis 5: Viruses
	Case 4 Malaria: Coevolution of Humans and a Parasite
	Chapter 20 Evolution
		20.1 Genetic Variation
			Population genetics is the study of patterns of genetic variation.
			Mutation and recombination are the two sources of genetic variation.
		20.2 Measuring Genetic Variation
			To understand patterns of genetic variation, we require information about allele frequencies.
			Early population geneticists relied on observable traits and gel electrophoresis to measure variation.
			DNA sequencing is the gold standard for measuring genetic variation.
		20.3 Evolution and the Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium
			Evolution is a change in allele or genotype frequency over time.
			The Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium describes situations in which allele and genotype frequencies do not change.
			The Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium relates allele frequencies and genotype frequencies.
			The Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium is the starting point for population genetic analysis.
		20.4 Natural Selection
			Natural selection brings about adaptations.
			The theory of natural selection rests on simple, testable observations.
			Fitness describes how well an individual survives and reproduces in a particular environment.
			The Modern Synthesis combines Mendelian genetics and Darwinian evolution.
			Natural selection increases the frequency of advantageous mutations and decreases the frequency of deleterious mutations.
			Balancing selection maintains two or more alleles in a population.
			Natural selection can be stabilizing, directional, or disruptive.
			Artificial selection is a form of directional selection.
			Sexual selection increases an individual’s reproductive success.
		20.5 Nonadaptive Mechanisms of Evolution
			Genetic drift is a change in allele frequency due to chance.
			Genetic drift has a large effect in small populations.
			Migration reduces genetic variation between populations.
			Mutation increases genetic variation.
			Nonrandom mating alters genotype frequencies without affecting allele frequencies.
		20.6 Molecular Evolution
			The molecular clock relates the amount of sequence difference between species and the time since the species diverged.
			The rate of the molecular clock varies.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 21 Species and Speciation
		21.1 The Biological Species Concept
			Species are reproductively isolated from other species.
			The BSC is more useful in theory than in practice.
			The BSC does not apply to asexual or extinct organisms.
			Hybridization complicates the BSC.
			Ecology and evolution can extend the BSC.
		21.2 Reproductive Isolation
			Prezygotic isolating factors occur before egg fertilization.
			Postzygotic isolating factors occur after egg fertilization.
		21.3 Speciation
			Speciation is a by-product of the genetic divergence of separated populations.
			Allopatric speciation results from the geographic separation of populations.
			Dispersal and vicariance can isolate populations from each other.
			Co-speciation occurs in response to speciation in another species.
			Sympatric populations — those in the same place — may undergo speciation.
			Speciation can occur instantaneously.
			Speciation can occur with or without natural selection.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Visual Synthesis 6: Speciation
	Chapter 22 Phylogeny, Fossils, and the History of Life
		22.1 Reading a Phylogenetic Tree
			Phylogenetic trees provide hypotheses of evolutionary relationships.
			The search for sister groups lies at the heart of phylogenetics.
			A monophyletic group consists of a common ancestor and all its descendants.
			Taxonomic classifications are information storage and retrieval systems.
		22.2 Building a Phylogenetic Tree
			Homology is similarity by common descent.
			Shared derived characters enable biologists to reconstruct evolutionary history.
			The simplest tree is often favored among multiple possible trees.
			Molecular data complement comparative morphology in reconstructing phylogenetic history.
			Phylogenetic trees can help solve practical problems.
		22.3 The Fossil Record
			Fossils provide unique information.
			Fossils provide a selective record of past life.
			Geologic data indicate the age and environmental setting of fossils.
			Fossils can contain unique combinations of characters.
			Rare mass extinctions have altered the course of evolution.
		22.4 The History of Life
			Phylogeny and fossils complement each other.
			Fossils and phylogeny show that the deep history of life is microbial.
			Animals enter the fossil record 575 million years ago.
			Life on land first diversified 467–350 million years ago.
			During the Mesozoic Era, life changed dramatically on land and in the seas.
			In the Cenozoic Era, mammals and other groups diversified to form the biota we see today.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 23 Human Origins and Evolution
		23.1 The Great Apes
			Comparative anatomy shows that the human lineage branches off the tree of the great apes.
			Molecular analysis reveals that the human lineage split from the chimpanzee lineage about 5–7 million years ago.
			The fossil record gives us direct information about our evolutionary history.
		23.2 African Origins
			Studies of mitochondrial DNA reveal that modern humans evolved in Africa relatively recently.
			Studies of the Y chromosome provide independent evidence for a recent origin of modern humans.
			Neanderthals disappear from the fossil record as modern humans appear, but have contributed to the modern human gene pool.
		23.3 Human Traits
			Bipedalism was a key innovation.
			Adult humans share many features with juvenile chimpanzees.
			Humans have large brains relative to body size.
			The human and chimpanzee genomes help us identify genes that make us human.
		23.4 Human Genetic Variation
			Humans have very little genetic variation.
			The prehistory of humans influenced the distribution of genetic variation.
			The recent spread of modern humans means that there are few genetic differences between groups.
			Some human differences have likely arisen by natural selection.
			Some human genes are under selection for resistance to malaria.
		23.5 Culture, Language, and Consciousness
			Culture changes rapidly.
			Is culture uniquely human?
			Is language uniquely human?
			Is consciousness uniquely human?
		Core Concepts Summary
	Visual Synthesis 7: History of Earth and Life
Part 2 From Organisms to the Environment
	Case 5 The Human Microbiome: Diversity Within
	Chapter 24 Bacteria and Archaea
		24.1 Two Prokaryotic Domains
			The bacterial cell is small but powerful.
			Diffusion limits cell size in bacteria.
			Horizontal gene transfer promotes genetic diversity in bacteria.
			Archaea form a second prokaryotic domain.
		24.2 Carbon Metabolism
			Bacteria and archaea cycle carbon in diverse ways.
			Many photosynthetic bacteria do not produce oxygen.
			Many bacteria respire without oxygen.
			Photoheterotrophs obtain energy from light but obtain carbon from preformed organic molecules.
			Chemoautotrophy is a uniquely prokaryotic metabolism.
		24.3 Sulfur and Nitrogen Metabolism
			Bacteria and archaea dominate Earth’s sulfur cycle.
			The nitrogen cycle is also driven by bacteria and archaea.
		24.4 Bacterial Diversity
			Most bacteria in nature have not been cultured in the lab.
			What, if anything, is a bacterial species?
			Bacterial phylogeny is a work in progress.
			Proteobacteria are the most diverse bacteria.
			The Gram-positive bacteria include organisms that cause and cure disease.
			Photosynthesis is widely distributed on the bacterial tree.
		24.5 Archaeal Diversity
			As with Bacteria, we continue to learn about the diversity of Archaea.
			The archaeal tree has anaerobic, hyperthermophilic organisms near its base.
			The Archaea include several groups of acid-loving microorganisms.
			Only Archaea produce methane as a by-product of energy metabolism.
			One group of the Euryarchaeota thrives in extremely salty environments.
			Thaumarchaeota may be the most abundant cells in the deep ocean.
			Asgard archaea link the Archaea to eukaryotic evolution.
		24.6 The Evolutionary History of Prokaryotes
			Life originated early in our planet’s history.
			Prokaryotes have coevolved with eukaryotes.
			Intestinal bacteria influence human health.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 25 Eukaryotic Origins and Diversity
		25.1 The Eukaryotic Cell
			Internal protein scaffolding and dynamic membranes organize the eukaryotic cell.
			In eukaryotic cells, energy metabolism is linked to cell structure.
			The organization of the eukaryotic genome also helps explain eukaryotic diversity.
			Sex promotes genetic diversity in eukaryotes and gives rise to distinctive life cycles.
		25.2 Eukaryotic Origins
			Symbiosis led to the origin of chloroplasts.
			Mitochondria are also descended from bacteria.
			Archaea played a central role in eukaryotic origins.
		25.3 Eukaryotic Diversity
			Our own group, the opisthokonts, is the most diverse branch on the eukaryotic tree.
			Amoebozoans include slime molds that produce multicellular structures.
			Archaeplastids, which include land plants, are photosynthetic organisms.
			Stramenopiles, alveolates, and rhizarians dominate eukaryotic diversity in the oceans.
			Photosynthesis spread through eukaryotes by repeated endosymbioses involving eukaryotic algae.
		25.4 Eukaryotic Evolutionary History
			Fossils show that eukaryotes existed at least 1800 million years ago.
			Protists have continued to diversify during the age of animals.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 26 Being Multicellular
		26.1 The Phylogenetic Distribution of Multicellular Organisms
			Simple multicellularity is widespread among eukaryotes.
			Complex multicellularity evolved several times.
		26.2 Diffusion and Bulk Flow
			Diffusion is effective only over short distances.
			Animals achieve large size by circumventing limits imposed by diffusion.
			Complex multicellular organisms have structures specialized for bulk flow.
		26.3 How to Build a Multicellular Organism
			Complex multicellularity requires adhesion between cells.
			Cell adhesion in animals involves cell-surface molecules also found in their single-celled relatives.
			Complex multicellularity requires communication between cells.
			Complex multicellularity requires a genetic program for coordinated growth and cell differentiation.
		26.4 Plants Versus Animals
			Cell walls shape patterns of growth and development in plants.
			Animal cells can move relative to one another.
		26.5 The Evolution of Complex Multicellularity
			Oxygen is necessary for complex multicellular life.
			Regulatory genes played an important role in the evolution of complex multicellular organisms.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Case 6 Agriculture: Feeding a Growing Population
	Chapter 27 Plant Form, Function, and Diversity
		27.1 Major Themes in Plant Evolution
			What is a plant?
			Cell walls play a central role in how plants grow and survive on land.
			Four major transformations characterize the evolutionary history of plants.
		27.2 Bryophytes
			Bryophytes are small and widespread.
			Sphagnum moss plays an important role in the global carbon cycle.
		27.3 Vascular Plants
			Lycophytes evolved leaves and roots independently from all other vascular plants.
			Ancient lycophytes included giant trees that dominated coal swamps about 320 million years ago.
			Ferns and horsetails are morphologically and ecologically diverse.
			An aquatic fern contributes to rice production.
		27.4 Gymnosperms
			Pollen and seeds enhance the reproductive success of seed plants.
			Cycads and ginkgos were once both diverse and widespread.
			Conifers are woody plants that thrive in dry and cold climates.
			Gnetophytes have independently evolved several features found in angiosperms.
		27.5 Angiosperms
			Angiosperm diversity is of recent origin.
			Angiosperm diversity may result in part from coevolutionary interactions with animals and other organisms.
			Eudicots make up three-quarters of angiosperm diversity.
			Monocots are diverse in shape and size despite not forming a vascular cambium.
			Crop genetic diversity is a precious resource.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 28 Plant Reproduction
		28.1 Alternation of Generations
			The algal sister groups of land plants have one multicellular generation in their life cycle.
			Land plants have two multicellular generations in their life cycle.
			A widespread moss illustrates how alternation of generations allows the dispersal of spores in the air.
			Dispersal enhances reproductive fitness in several ways.
			Spore-dispersing vascular plants have free-living gametophytes and sporophytes.
		28.2 Seed Plants
			The seed plant life cycle is distinguished by four major stages.
			Pine trees illustrate how the transport of pollen in air allows fertilization to occur in the absence of external sources of water.
			Seeds enhance the establishment of the next sporophyte generation.
		28.3 Flowering Plants
			Flowers are reproductive shoots specialized for the transfer and receipt of pollen.
			The diversity of floral morphology is related to modes of pollination.
			Angiosperms have mechanisms to increase outcrossing.
			Angiosperms delay provisioning their ovules until after fertilization.
			Fruits enhance the dispersal of seeds.
			The Green Revolution increased crop yields.
		28.4 Asexual Reproduction
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 29 Plant Physiology
		29.1 Photosynthesis on Land
			Plants have evolved two strategies for coping with intermittent drying of the land surface.
			Bryophytes rely on surface water for hydration.
			Vascular plants rely on soil water for hydration.
			Vascular plants produce four major organ types.
		29.2 Carbon Dioxide Gain and Water Loss
			CO2 uptake results in water loss.
			The cuticle restricts water loss from leaves but inhibits the uptake of CO2.
			Stomata allow leaves to regulate water loss and carbon gain.
			CAM plants use nocturnal CO2 storage to avoid water loss during the day.
			C4 plants suppress photorespiration by concentrating CO2 in bundle-sheath cells.
		29.3 Water Transport
			Xylem provides a low-resistance pathway for the movement of water.
			Water is pulled through xylem by an evaporative pump.
			Xylem transport is at risk of conduit collapse and cavitation.
		29.4 Carbohydrate Transport
			Phloem transports carbohydrates from sources to sinks.
			Carbohydrates are pushed through phloem by an osmotic pump.
			Phloem feeds both the plant and the rhizosphere.
		29.5 Uptake of Water and Nutrients By Roots
			Plants obtain nutrients from the soil.
			Nutrient uptake by roots is highly selective.
			Nutrient uptake requires energy.
			Mycorrhizae enhance nutrient uptake.
			Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria supply nitrogen to both plants and ecosystems.
			Nitrogen availability has a large impact on agricultural productivity.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Visual Synthesis 8: Angiosperms
	Chapter 30 Plant Growth and Development
		30.1 Primary Growth of Shoots
			Shoots exhibit modular growth.
			Cell expansion drives the elongation of stems.
			The shoot apical meristem controls the production and arrangement of leaves.
			Young leaves develop vascular connections to the stem.
			Flower development terminates the growth of shoot apical meristems.
		30.2 Primary Growth of Roots
			Roots grow by producing new cells at their tips.
			The formation of new root apical meristems allows roots to branch.
			The structures and functions of root systems are diverse.
		30.3 Secondary Growth
			Secondary growth is the result of two lateral meristems.
			The vascular cambium produces secondary xylem and phloem.
			The cork cambium produces an outer protective layer.
		30.4 Plant Hormones
			Hormones affect the growth and differentiation of plant cells.
			Polar transport of auxin guides the development of vascular connections between leaves and stems.
			Gibberellins stimulate internode elongation.
			Cytokinins, in combination with other hormones, control the outgrowth of branches.
		30.5 The Environmental Context of Growth and Development
			Plants orient the growth of their stems and roots by light and gravity.
			Seeds can delay germination if they detect the presence of plants overhead.
			Plants grow taller and branch less when growing in the shade of other plants.
			Roots elongate more and branch less when water is scarce.
			Exposure to wind results in shorter and stronger stems.
		30.6 Timing of Developmental Events
			Flowering time is affected by day length.
			Vernalization prevents plants from flowering until winter has passed.
			Plants use day length as a cue to prepare for winter.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 31 Plant Defense
		31.1 Defense Against Pathogens
			Plant pathogens infect and exploit plants by a variety of mechanisms.
			Plants are able to detect and respond to pathogens.
			Plants respond to infections by isolating infected regions.
			Mobile signals trigger defenses in uninfected tissues.
			Plants defend against viral infections by producing siRNA.
			A pathogenic bacterium provides a way to modify plant genomes.
		31.2 Defense Against Herbivores
			Plants use mechanical and chemical defenses to avoid being eaten.
			Diverse chemical compounds deter herbivores.
			Some plants provide food and shelter for ants, which actively defend them.
			Grasses can regrow quickly following grazing by mammals.
		31.3 Allocating Resources to Defense
			Some defenses are always present, whereas others are turned on in response to a threat.
			Plants can sense and respond to herbivores.
			Plants produce volatile signals that attract insects that prey upon herbivores.
			Nutrient-rich environments select for plants that allocate more resources to growth than to defense.
			Exposure to multiple threats can lead to additional trade-offs.
		31.4 Defense and Plant Diversity
			The evolution of new defenses may allow plants to diversify.
			Pathogens, herbivores, and seed predators can increase plant diversity.
			Pathogen and herbivore pressure is high in agricultural systems.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 32 Fungi
		32.1 Growth and Nutrition
			Hyphae permit fungi to explore their environment for food resources.
			Fungi transport materials within their hyphae.
			Not all fungi produce hyphae.
			Fungi are principal decomposers of plant tissues.
			Fungi are important plant and animal pathogens.
			Many fungi form symbiotic associations with plants and animals.
			Lichens are symbioses between a fungus and a green alga or a cyanobacterium.
		32.2 Reproduction
			Fungi proliferate and disperse using spores.
			Multicellular fruiting bodies facilitate the dispersal of sexually produced spores.
			Sexual reproduction in fungi often includes a stage in which haploid cells fuse, but nuclei do not.
			Genetically distinct mating types promote outcrossing.
			Parasexual fungi generate genetic diversity by asexual means.
		32.3 Diversity
			Fungi are highly diverse.
			Chytrids are aquatic fungi that lack hyphae.
			Zygomycetes produce hyphae undivided by septa.
			Glomeromycetes form endomycorrhizae.
			The Dikarya produce regular septa during mitosis.
			Ascomycetes are the most diverse group of fungi.
			Basidiomycetes include smuts, rusts, and mushrooms.
			A fungal pathogen threatens global wheat production.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Case 7 Bio-Inspired Design: Using Nature to Solve Problems
	Chapter 33 Animal Form, Function, and Evolutionary History
		33.1 Animal Body Plans
			What is an animal?
			Animals can be classified based on type of symmetry.
			Many animals have a brain and specialized sensory organs at the front of the body.
			Some animals show segmentation.
			Studies of embryological development provided additional insights about animals.
			Molecular sequence comparisons have confirmed some relationships and raised new questions.
		33.2 Tissues and Organs
			Most animals have four types of tissues.
			Tissues are organized into organs that carry out specific functions.
			Animal form and function can be studied to build robots.
		33.3 Homeostasis
			Homeostasis is the active maintenance of stable conditions inside of cells and organisms.
			Homeostasis is often achieved by negative feedback.
		33.4 Evolutionary History
			Fossils and phylogeny show that animal forms were initially simple but rapidly evolved complexity.
			The animal body plans we see today emerged during the Cambrian Period.
			Five mass extinctions have changed the trajectory of animal evolution during the past 500 million years.
			Animals began to colonize the land 430 million years ago.
			Some animals show a trend toward increased body size over time.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 34 Animal Diversity
		34.1 Sponges, Cnidarians, Ctenophores, and Placozoans
			Sponges share some features with choanoflagellates but also exhibit adaptations conferred by multicellularity.
			Cnidarians are the architects of life’s largest constructions: coral reefs.
			Ctenophores and placozoans represent the extremes of body organization among phyla that branch from early nodes on the animal tree.
			Branching relationships among early nodes on the animal tree remain uncertain.
		34.2 Protostome Animals
			Lophotrochozoans account for nearly half of all animal phyla, including the diverse and ecologically important annelids and mollusks.
			Ecdysozoans are animals that episodically molt their external cuticle during growth.
		34.3 Arthropods
			The Arthropoda is the most diverse animal phylum.
			Insects make up the majority of all known animal species and have adaptations that allow them to live in diverse habitats.
		34.4 Deuterostome Animals
			Hemichordates include acorn worms and pterobranchs, and echinoderms include sea stars and sea urchins.
			Chordates include vertebrates, cephalochordates, and tunicates.
		34.5 Vertebrates
			Fish are the most diverse vertebrate animals.
			The common ancestor of tetrapods had four limbs.
			Amniotic eggs resist drying out and allow tetrapods to be fully terrestrial.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Visual Synthesis 9: Diversity Through Time
	Chapter 35 Animal Nervous Systems
		35.1 Nervous System Function and Evolution
			Animal nervous systems have three general types of nerve cells.
			Nervous systems range from simple to complex.
		35.2 Neuron Structure
			Neurons share a common organization.
			Neurons differ in size and shape.
			Neurons are supported by other types of cells.
		35.3 Signal Transmission
			The resting membrane potential is negative and results in part from the movement of potassium and sodium ions.
			Neurons are excitable cells that transmit information by action potentials.
			Neurons propagate action potentials along their axons by sequentially opening and closing adjacent Na+ and K+ ion channels.
			Neurons communicate at synapses.
			Signals between neurons can be excitatory or inhibitory.
		35.4 Nervous System Organization
			Nervous systems are organized into peripheral and central components.
			Peripheral nervous systems have voluntary and involuntary components.
			Simple reflex circuits provide rapid responses to stimuli.
		35.5 Sensory Systems
			Sensory receptor cells detect diverse stimuli.
			Sensory transduction converts a stimulus into an electrical impulse.
			Chemoreceptors respond to chemical stimuli.
			Mechanoreceptors detect physical forces.
			Cochlear implants bypass damaged hair cells in the cochlea.
			Electromagnetic receptors sense light.
		35.6 Brain Organization and Function
			The brain processes and integrates information received from different sensory systems.
			The brain is divided into lobes with specialized functions.
			Information is topographically mapped into the vertebrate cerebral cortex.
			The brain allows for memory, learning, and cognition.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 36 Animal Movement
		36.1 How Muscles Work
			Muscles use chemical energy to produce force and movement.
			Muscles can be striated or smooth.
			Skeletal and cardiac muscle cells are organized into repeating contractile units called sarcomeres.
			Muscles contract by the sliding of myosin and actin protein filaments.
			Calcium regulates actin–myosin interaction through excitation–contraction coupling.
			Calmodulin regulates calcium activation and relaxation of smooth muscle.
		36.2 Muscle Contractile Properties
			Antagonist pairs of muscles produce reciprocal motions at a joint.
			Muscle length affects actin–myosin overlap and generation of force.
			Muscle force and shortening velocity are inversely related.
			Muscle force is summed by an increase in stimulation frequency and the recruitment of motor units.
			Skeletal muscles have slow-twitch and fast-twitch fibers.
			How do different types of muscle fibers affect the speed of animals?
		36.3 Animal Skeletons
			Hydrostatic skeletons support animals by muscles that act on a fluid-filled cavity.
			Exoskeletons provide hard external support and protection.
			The rigid bones of vertebrate endoskeletons are jointed for motion and can be repaired if damaged.
		36.4 Vertebrate Skeletons
			Vertebrate bones form directly or by forming a cartilage model first.
			The two main types of bone are compact bone and spongy bone.
			Bones grow in length and width and can be repaired.
			Joint shape determines range of motion and skeletal muscle organization.
			Smart materials can heal damaged bones and improve the function of artificial joints.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 37 Animal Endocrine Systems
		37.1 Endocrine Function
			The endocrine system helps to regulate an organism’s response to its environment.
			The endocrine system regulates growth and development.
			The endocrine system underlies homeostasis.
		37.2 Hormones
			Hormones act specifically on cells that bind the hormone.
			Two classes of hormones are peptide and amine hormones, and steroid hormones.
			Hormonal signals are amplified to produce a strong effect.
			Hormones are evolutionarily conserved molecules with diverse functions.
		37.3 The Vertebrate Endocrine System
			The pituitary gland integrates diverse bodily functions by secreting hormones in response to signals from the hypothalamus.
			Many targets of pituitary hormones are endocrine tissues that also secrete hormones.
			Other endocrine organs have diverse functions.
			The fight-or-flight response represents a change in set point in many different organs.
		37.4 Other Forms of Chemical Communication
			Local chemical signals regulate neighboring target cells.
			Pheromones are chemical compounds released into the environment that signal physiological and behavioral changes.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 38 Animal Respiratory and Cardiovascular Systems
		38.1 Delivery of Oxygen and Elimination of Carbon Dioxide
			Diffusion governs gas exchange over short distances.
			Bulk flow moves fluid over long distances.
		38.2 Respiratory Gas Exchange
			Many aquatic animals breathe through gills.
			Insects breathe air through tracheae.
			Most terrestrial vertebrates breathe by tidal ventilation of internal lungs.
			Mammalian lungs are well adapted for gas exchange.
			The structure of bird lungs allows unidirectional airflow for increased oxygen uptake.
			Voluntary and involuntary mechanisms control breathing.
		38.3 Oxygen Transport by Hemoglobin
			Blood is composed of fluid and several types of cell.
			Hemoglobin is an ancient molecule with diverse roles related to oxygen binding and transport.
			Hemoglobin reversibly binds oxygen.
			Many factors affect hemoglobin–oxygen binding.
			Myoglobin stores oxygen, enhancing oxygen delivery to skeletal muscle mitochondria.
		38.4 Circulatory Systems
			Circulatory systems have vessels of different sizes.
			Arteries are muscular vessels that carry blood away from the heart under high pressure.
			Veins are thin-walled vessels that return blood to the heart under low pressure.
			Compounds and fluid move across capillary walls by diffusion, filtration, and osmosis.
			Hormones and nerves provide homeostatic regulation of blood pressure.
		38.5 Structure and Function of the Vertebrate Heart
			Fishes have two-chambered hearts and a single circulatory system.
			Amphibians and reptiles have three-chambered hearts and partially divided circulations.
			Mammals and birds have four-chambered hearts and fully divided pulmonary and systemic circulations.
			Mechanically engineered replacement heart valves can prolong heart function for many years.
			Cardiac muscle cells are electrically connected to contract in synchrony.
			Heart rate and cardiac output are regulated by the autonomic nervous system.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 39 Animal Metabolism, Nutrition, and Digestion
		39.1 Patterns of Animal Metabolism
			Animals rely on anaerobic and aerobic metabolism.
			Metabolic rate varies with activity level.
			Metabolic rate is affected by body size.
			Metabolic rate is linked to body temperature.
		39.2 Nutrition and Diet
			Energy balance is a form of homeostasis.
			An animal’s diet supplies nutrients that the animal cannot synthesize on its own.
		39.3 Adaptations for Feeding
			Suspension filter feeding is common in many aquatic animals.
			Large aquatic animals apprehend prey by suction feeding and active swimming.
			Specialized structures allow for capture and mechanical breakdown of food.
		39.4 Regional Specialization of the Gut
			Most animal digestive tracts have three main parts: a foregut, midgut, and hindgut.
			Digestion begins in the mouth.
			Further digestion and storage of nutrients take place in the stomach.
			Final digestion and nutrient absorption take place in the small intestine.
			The large intestine absorbs water and stores waste.
			The lining of the digestive tract is composed of distinct layers.
			Plant-eating animals have specialized digestive tracts adapted to their diets.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 40 Animal Renal Systems
		40.1 Water and Electrolyte Balance
			Osmosis governs the movement of water across cell membranes.
			Osmoregulation is the control of osmotic pressure inside cells and organisms.
			Osmoconformers match their internal solute concentration to that of the environment.
			Osmoregulators have internal solute concentrations that differ from that of their environment.
		40.2 Excretion of Wastes
			The excretion of nitrogenous wastes is linked to an animal’s habitat and evolutionary history.
			Excretory organs work by filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.
			Animals have diverse excretory organs.
			Vertebrates filter blood under pressure through paired kidneys.
		40.3 The Mammalian Kidney
			The mammalian kidney has an outer cortex and inner medulla.
			Glomerular filtration isolates waste from the blood along with water and small solutes.
			The proximal convoluted tubule reabsorbs solutes by active transport.
			The loop of Henle acts as a countercurrent multiplier to create a concentration gradient from the cortex to the medulla.
			The distal convoluted tubule secretes additional wastes.
			The final concentration of urine is determined in the collecting ducts and is under hormonal control.
			The kidneys help regulate blood pressure and blood volume.
			Dialysis mimics the function of the kidney in patients with renal failure.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Visual Synthesis 10: Homeostasis
	Chapter 41 Animal Reproduction and Development
		41.1 The Evolutionary History of Reproduction
			Asexual reproduction produces clones.
			Sexual reproduction involves the formation and fusion of gametes.
			Many species reproduce both sexually and asexually.
			Exclusive asexuality is often an evolutionary dead end.
		41.2 Movement Onto Land and Reproductive Adaptations
			Fertilization can take place externally or internally.
			r-strategists and K-strategists differ in number of offspring and parental care.
			Animals either lay eggs or give birth to live young.
		41.3 Human Reproductive Anatomy and Physiology
			The male reproductive system is specialized for the production and delivery of sperm.
			The female reproductive system produces eggs and supports the developing embryo.
			Hormones regulate the human reproductive system.
			Contraception is used to prevent pregnancy.
		41.4 Gamete Formation to Birth in Humans
			Male and female gametogenesis have both shared and distinct features.
			Fertilization occurs when a sperm fuses with an oocyte.
			Early development includes cleavage, gastrulation, and organogenesis.
			Late development is characterized by fetal growth.
			Childbirth is initiated by hormonal changes.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 42 Animal Immune Systems
		42.1 An Overview of the Immune System
			Pathogens cause disease.
			The immune system distinguishes self from nonself.
			The immune system consists of innate and adaptive immunity.
		42.2 Innate Immunity
			The skin and mucous membranes provide the first line of defense against infection.
			White blood cells provide a second line of defense against pathogens.
			Phagocytes recognize foreign molecules and send signals to other cells.
			Inflammation is a coordinated response to tissue injury.
			The complement system participates in the innate and adaptive immune systems.
			A protein that circulates in the blood is used in a device built to treat sepsis.
		42.3 B Cells and Antibodies
			B cells produce antibodies.
			Mammals produce five classes of antibodies with different functions.
			Clonal selection is the basis for antibody specificity.
			Clonal selection explains immunological memory, the basis for vaccination.
			Genomic rearrangement generates antibody diversity.
		42.4 T Cells and Cell-Mediated Immunity
			T cells include helper, cytotoxic, and regulatory cells.
			T cells have T cell receptors on their surface that recognize an antigen in association with MHC proteins.
			The ability to distinguish between self and nonself is acquired during T cell maturation.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Case 8 Climate Change: Coral Reefs at Risk as the World Warms
	Chapter 43 Animal Behavior and Behavioral Ecology
		43.1 Tinbergen’s Questions
			Tinbergen asked proximate and ultimate questions about behavior.
		43.2 Dissecting Behavior
			The fixed action pattern is a stereotyped behavior.
			The nervous system processes stimuli and evokes behaviors.
			Hormones can trigger certain behaviors.
			Breeding experiments can help determine the degree to which a behavior is genetic.
			Molecular techniques provide new ways of testing the role of genes in behavior.
		43.3 Learning
			Nonassociative learning occurs without linking two events.
			Associative learning occurs when two events are linked.
			Learning is an adaptation.
		43.4 Information Processing
			Orientation involves a directed response to a stimulus.
			Navigation is demonstrated by the remarkable ability of homing in birds.
			Biological clocks provide important time cues for many behaviors.
		43.5 Communication
			Communication is the transfer of information between a sender and a receiver.
			Some forms of communication are complex and learned during a sensitive period.
			Communication can convey specific information.
		43.6 Social Behavior
			Group selection is a weak explanation of altruistic behavior.
			Reciprocal altruism is one way that altruism can evolve.
			Kin selection is based on the idea that it is possible to contribute genetically to future generations by helping close relatives.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 44 Population Ecology
		44.1 Populations and Their Properties
			A population includes all the individuals of a species in a particular place.
			Three key features of a population are its size, range, and density.
			Ecologists estimate population size by sampling.
		44.2 Population Growth and Decline
			Population size is affected by birth, death, immigration, and emigration.
			Population size increases rapidly when the per capita growth rate is constant over time.
			Carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals a habitat can sustain without degrading the environment.
			Logistic growth produces an S-shaped curve and describes the growth of many natural populations.
			Factors that influence population growth can be dependent on or independent of population density.
		44.3 Age-Structured Population Growth
			Birth and death rates vary with age and environment.
			Survivorship curves record changes in survival probability over an organism’s life-span.
			Patterns of survivorship vary among organisms.
			Reproductive patterns reflect the predictability of a species’ environment.
			The life history of an organism shows trade-offs among physiological functions.
		44.4 Metapopulation Dynamics
			A metapopulation is a group of populations linked by corridors.
			Islands represent extremes of habitat patchiness for colonizing species.
			Climate change is affecting the range and survival of populations.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 45 Species Interactions and Communities
		45.1 The Niche
			The niche is a species’ place in nature.
			The realized niche of a species is more restricted than its fundamental niche.
			Niches are shaped by evolutionary history.
		45.2 Antagonistic Interactions
			Limited resources foster competition.
			Competitive exclusion prevents two species from occupying the same niche at the same time.
			Resource partitioning can drive species diversification.
			Predation, parasitism, and herbivory are interactions in which one species benefits at the expense of another.
		45.3 Mutualistic Interactions
			Mutualisms are interactions between species that benefit both participants.
			Mutualisms may evolve increasing interdependence.
			Digestive symbioses recycle plant material.
			Mutualisms may be obligate or facultative.
			In some interactions, one partner is unaffected by the interaction.
			Facilitation occurs when one species indirectly benefits another.
			The costs and benefits of species interactions can change over time.
		45.4 Communities
			Species that live in the same place make up communities.
			Biodiversity can be measured in several ways.
			Species influence each other in a complex web of interactions vulnerable to climate change.
			Keystone species have disproportionate effects on communities.
			Disturbance can modify community composition
			Succession describes the community response to new habitats or disturbance.
			Island biogeography explains species diversity on habitat patches.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Visual Synthesis 11: Succession
	Chapter 46 Ecosystem Ecology
		46.1 The Short-Term Carbon Cycle
			The Keeling curve records changing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere over time.
			Photosynthesis and respiration are key processes in short-term carbon cycling.
			The regular oscillation of CO2 reflects the seasonality of photosynthesis in the Northern Hemisphere.
			Human activities play an important role in the modern carbon cycle.
			Carbon isotopes show that much of the CO2 added to air over the past 70 years comes from burning fossil fuels.
		46.2 The Long-Term Carbon Cycle
			Records of atmospheric composition over 400,000 years show periodic shifts in CO2 levels.
			Reservoirs and fluxes are key in long-term carbon cycling.
		46.3 Food Webs and Trophic Pyramids
			Food webs trace carbon and other elements through communities and ecosystems.
			Energy as well as carbon is transferred through ecosystems.
		46.4 Other Biogeochemical Cycles
			The nitrogen cycle is closely linked to the carbon cycle.
			Phosphorus cycles through ecosystems, supporting primary production.
		46.5 The Ecological Framework of Biodiversity
			Biological diversity reflects the many ways that organisms participate in biogeochemical cycles, food webs, and trophic pyramids.
			Biological diversity can influence primary production and therefore the biological carbon cycle.
			Biogeochemical cycles weave together biological evolution and environmental change through Earth’s history.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Visual Synthesis 12: Flow of Matter and Energy Through Ecosystems
	Chapter 47 Climate and Biomes
		47.1 Climate
			The principal determinant of Earth’s surface temperature is the angle at which solar radiation strikes the surface.
			Heat is transported toward the poles by wind and ocean currents.
			Global circulation patterns determine patterns of rainfall, but topography also matters.
		47.2 Biomes
			The water cycle plays a key role in the distribution of terrestrial biomes.
			Earth’s terrestrial biomes reflect the distribution of climates around the world.
			Aquatic biomes reflect climate, the availability of nutrients and oxygen, and the depth to which sunlight penetrates through water.
			Estuaries form where fresh water and seawater meet.
			Marine biomes cover most of our planet’s surface.
		47.3 Global Patterns
			Global patterns of primary production reflect variations in climate and nutrient availability.
			Biodiversity is highest at the equator and lowest toward the poles.
		Core Concepts Summary
	Chapter 48 Humans as a Planetary Force
		48.1 The Anthropocene
			Humans are a major force on the planet.
		48.2 Human Influence on the Carbon Cycle
			As atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have increased, so has mean surface temperature.
			Changing environments affect species distribution and community composition.
			Marine life is also vulnerable to increasing levels of carbon dioxide.
			What can be done?
		48.3 Human Influence on the Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycles
			Nitrogen fertilizer transported to lakes and the sea causes eutrophication.
			Phosphate fertilizer is also used in agriculture, but has finite sources.
			What can be done?
		48.4 Human Influence on Biodiversity
			Human activities have reduced the quality and size of many habitats, decreasing the number of species they can support.
			Overexploitation threatens species and disrupts ecological relationships within communities.
			Humans play an important role in the dispersal of species.
			Humans have altered the selective landscape for many pathogens.
			Are amphibians ecology’s “canary in the coal mine”?
		48.5 Conservation Biology
			What are our conservation priorities?
			Conservation biologists have a diverse toolkit for confronting threats to biodiversity.
			Climate change provides new challenges for conservation biology in the twenty-first century.
			Sustainable development provides a strategy for conserving biodiversity while meeting the needs of the human population.
		48.6 Scientists and Citizens in the Twenty-First Century
		Core Concepts Summary
Back Matter
	Glossary
	Notes
	Index
	Back Cover
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